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^ t^M THE 



Diseases of Sheep 

EXPLAINED AND DESCRIBED, 



THE PROPER REMEDIES TO PREVENT AND 
CURE THE SAME. 

WITH AN ESSAY ON CATTLE EPIDEMICS. 

ESPECIALLY DEDICATED TO THE USE OF FAEMEES, 
SHEEP-OWKEES, ETC. 



By HE„NRY CLOK, Y.S., 

Graduate of the Royal College at Berlin, Prussia, and late Yeterinae? 
Subgeon-in-Chief of the U. S. A. 








mm 




PHILADELPHIA: 
CLAXTON, EEMSEN & HAFFELFINGEE, 

Nos. 819 & 821 MARKET STREET. 

18 6 8. 



■N./^„'-N.^».'^..--v.'-^..'-v.'-S.'-V-"../-v„.-v.,'V.^V,-v.--^.,'-v./'^.,'-v.,-V.'-v.--%^^.-'-^./-V^-v.-'-w/-^..'-v..-N,'-v./-\.-^.'VJ 

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1868, by 

CLAXTON, REMSEN & HAFFELFINGER, 

In the Clerk's OfiBce of the District Court of the United States, for the Eastern 

District of Pennsylvania. 



Westcott & Thomson, 

Stbeeotypbrs, Philada, 






CONTENTS. 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 



Preface 7 

NATTTKAIi HiSTOEY OF THE ShEEP 11 

Inflammation ix General .' 15 

Diffusion — Suppuration — Ulceration — Exudation — Callos- 
ity — Gangrene — Cure of Inflammation — Eemedies. 

Anthony's Fire 27 

Sheep Pox 7, .\. , 35 

Period of Contagion — Period of Eruption —Period of Ma- 
turity — Period of Healing — Vaccination of Sheep Pox^ 
Mechanical System of Vaccination — Vaccination of the 
Ear — Process of the Vaccinated Pox. 

Vertigo or Staggers in Sheep 64 

Itch or Scab in Sheep 69 

Inflammation of the Lungs 77 

Malignant Foot Kot 78 

Malignant Foot Hot— The Mild Form. 
The Fluke 90 

Gnaw Disease (Hydrocephalus hydatidesis) 91 

3 



4 CONTENTS. 

Inflammation of the Brain 94 

DlARRHCEA and DySENTERY 95 

Cough ., , 97 

Lung Worms , 97 

Erysipelas 100 

Inflammation of the Throat 102 

Sore Mouth 102 

Epilepsy 103 

Staggers ....103 

HiEMATURIA 104 

Inflammation OF the Kidneys 105 

The Eot 106 

Wind Dropsy 108 

Palsy of Lambs 110 

Maggots 115 

The Larv^ of the Gadfly 116 

Madness 118 

To Tell the Age op Sheep 120 

Cancer of the Tongue 122 

Internal Diseases 124 

With Kegard to the Surface of the Body — With Regard to 
88 the Circulation of the Blood and the Eespiration — With 
88 Eegard to the Digestion, Excretions and Secretions — 
88 With Eegard to the Senses — With Eegard to the Organs 

of Locomotion. 
Classification of Diseases 127 



CX)NTENTS. O 

DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

PAGE 

The Cattle Pox 131 

Spleen Disease 136 

Spleen Disease in Cattle — Spleen Fever — Spleen Car- 
buncle — Remark. 

Pleuro-Pneumonia, Cattle Epidemic or Rinderpest 141 

Symptoms of the Acute " Lungenseuclie" — Cattle Epi- 
demic — Dissection. 
1* 



PREFACE. 



The cliief and only object of this^vork consists in a description 
of the internal and external Diseases of Sheep, as well as of their 
treatment and prevention. The author believes that he has 
omitted no disease of any considerable importance. The sys- 
tematic arrangement of a book like the present necessitates dili- 
gent research and the experience of many years. In order not 
to make their works appear too incomplete, authors frequently 
resort to lengthy dissertations, which may not be entirely with- 
out benefit to the general reader, but which had better be dis- 
pensed with, because they render the study of the subject tedi- 
ous and diminish the usefulness of the book. In the interest 
of the reader I have left unimproved this opportunity of acquir- 
ing an easy reputation for erudition by adorning this book with 
numerous quotations, being of the opinion that it matters very 
little to him when, by whom and under what circumstances 
certain useful results have been obtained, if he is only made 
acquainted with their existence. The reader is therefore re- 
quested to grant me his confidence if I do not, except in a few 
instances, produce authorities for my assertions. I believe my- 
self justly entitled to his confidence, since I am thoroughly con- 
versant with the foreign and home literature on the subject, and 



8 PREFACE. 

have acquired an extensive experience by long-continued, assidu- 
ous study and the practice of many years. 

Everything related by me in the present work is the result of 
my own experience and observation. Hardly a single disease is 
mentioned which I have not observed and treated. The descrip- 
tions of the diseases, and the directions for their prevention and 
cure, are therefore based substantially on my own observation. 
In the few instances where I have departed from this rule, I 
have availed myself of the experience of others, after subjecting 
it to a thorough criticism. As I have often been disappointed 
in life as well as in science^ I have become very suspicious and 
skeptical ; and this accounts for the fact that I have admitted 
nothing except after a careful investigation and examination! 
Nothing in this book is the mere product of philosophical 
reasoning or hypothetical theories, and it contains solely the 
results of my own observation and experience, and therefore 
facts. As, however, nothing is perfect, and man is liable to err, 
I may nevertheless have committed mistakes — it would be absurd 
to assert the contrary — and for these I ask the indulgence of 
the public. 

It is unnecessary to dwell long on the object of this book. 
Let it be understood that it is not my aim to make veterinarians 
of my readers, for that would be not only a useless and foolish 
undertaking, but might also be attended with dangerous con- 
sequences. I wish, however, to furnish the reader the necessary 
information to enable him to form an opinion of his own, and to 
burst the shackles of prejudice, which exists especially in this 
country, where veterinary science is still in its infancy. A care- 
ful perusal of these pages will enable him to understand the 
extent and probable limits of the science — what it can and what 
it cannot accomplish ; so that he may not be induced by quacks 



PREFACE. 9 

to waste money, time and trouble upon hopeless cases, or to give 
up too hastily the cure of an animal that might still be saved. 

The uon-professional may not be able to treat many diseases 
or execute the operations described here ; but in others which 
require instantaneous aid, such as wind-dropsy, he must help 
himself, and he can cure diseases like scab, foot-rot, etc., as well 
as the veterinary surgeon. It is also of considerable advantage 
to him to know the nature of the disease, its degree of danger, 
and whether delay is admissible. He can make the necessary 
arrangements, separate the sick from the healthy in contagious 
diseases, and continue properly the treatment commenced by 
the surgeon. 

Another, and not the least important, object which I have in 
view is, that the reader may be induced to form a higher opinion 
of the veterinary science and of its disciples than has hitherto 
prevailed. 

All connoisseurs agree that veterinary science, in theory as 
well as in practice, has made great progress in the last thirty 
years — greater perhaps than during all preceding times. I can- 
not too earnestly advise owners of cattle to avail themselves of 
the services of really educated practitioners, for they act against 
their own interests by following the advice of quacks and ignor- 
ant persons. The trifling fee of the surgeon should not be taken 
into consideration when, as is often the case, the safety of a 
whole flock or herd is at stake. 

The publication of this book is therefore not at variance with 
the recommendation to employ educated veterinarians, for its 
object is a twofold one ; and time will, it is hoped, demonstrate 
its success. The motto which I would like farmers and cattle- 
owners to adopt is, ' ' Help yourself when possible, and employ a 

veterinarian in other cases." 

A« 



10 PREFACE. 

Yeterinarians will never be esteemed according to their merits 

as long as there is a want of general knowledge of the subject. 

The present work is intended to meet this want to a certain 

extent. 

Respectfully, 

The Author. 
Philadelphia, 1868. 



NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SHEEP. 



The sheep belongs to tlie order Rumi?iantia, or ruminating 
animals, and is of small stature, of a white, and more rarely of 
a brown or black color, has a small head, pointed ears, a curved, 
narrow nose, a pointed mouth and a cloven upper lip. Some 
races are provided with horns having knotty rings, but these 
horns are more frequently found in the male than in the female : 
in the latter they are either smaller or entirely wanting. The 
udder consists of two parts, and is furnished with two teats. 
The greater portion of the body is covered with long, curly hair 
or wool. Another peculiarity of the sheep is seen in two sacs or 
cavities — one under the eyes and the other above the cleft of the 
hoof— which secrete a greasy, viscid liquid. The sound pro- 
duced by the voice of the sheep is called bleating. 

The sheep is certainly one of the most ancient domestic ani- 
mals, and it is not surprising therefore that as little is known 
about its origin and nativity as about those of the ox or cow. 
According to all probabilities, its wool is a product of breeding, 
since the wild species of sheep (especially the mufflow and 
argali, which many consider the first parents or primitive species 
of the sheep) have common hair, below which there is a woolly 
coating. The sheep appears to be originally a mountaineer, as 

would appear from the facts that all wild species live in the 

11 



12 NATURAL HISTOEY OF THE SHEEP. 

mountains, and tliat it shows a preference for dry pastures in 
elevated situations, where it can find tender, dry and fragrant 
herbs. On the other hand, all wet and marshy meadows, which 
bring forth watery and acrid plants, are positively injurious to 
its health. It is true that the sheep will accustom itself to 
lowlands containing rich pasture, but it is more Hable to diseases 
there, and not as long-lived. It is not at all sensitive to a 
moderate degree of dry cold, because it is protected against it by 
its fleece ; but great heat and moisture are manifestly injurious 
to it. Temperate and cold cKmates appear to be more favorable 
to the growth of fine wool than hot climates. The races living 
in the latter have either no wool at all, but common short hair, 
like the fallow-deer, or have coarse wool ; which is also the case 
with the sheep in the extreme north. 

The sheep is naturally timid, and not very lively, but very 
peaceable, and can therefore be easily kept in large herds or 
flocks and led by a shepherd or a dog. 

The age of the sheep is limited to twelve or fifteen years. 
Some races are longer and some shorter Kved. 

Sheep are distinguished by the following names with regard to 
their sex and age: male animals are called rams, and when 
castrated or gelded, wethers ; female animals, ewes ; young ani- 
mals, up to the first year, lambs, and then yearlings (having two 
teeth), and between the first and second years hoggerels or 
hoggets. After the second year they have four, and after the 
third, six teeth. In their fifth year they are said to be full- 
toothed, and are then called old. Animals which are no longer 
fitted for reproduction are said to be "cast off"." 

The sheep is found on the greater part of the earth's surface, 
and comprises many races, which are mainly distinguished by 
their size and by the nature of their wool. As regards the 



NATURAL HISTOEY OF THE SHEEP. 13 

latter, they may be divided into two great classes — those with 
short and those with long wool. The short wool is undulated 
and curled, fine and soft ; while the long wool is straighter and 
coarser. Sheep having short, fine wool are more slenderly built, 
but resist the changes of the weather better than the others, 
and even become quite fat on moist, low pasture-grounds. The 
merino sheep belongs to the first, and the common German 
sheep, the Bergamo sheep, etc. , to the second class. 

The finer breeds of sheep are chiefly raised for their wool^ 
which is shorn usually once a year, but sometimes twice, and it 
is manufactured chiefly into cloth. The coarser sheep are kept 
as much for their meat, suet and milk (from which a fatty cheese 
is made) as for their wool. The excrement of the sheep is, as is 
well known, an excellent fertilizer; the hides are made into 
morocco or worked up with the wool into furs; the tallow is 
used for burning ; the intestines are manufactured into strings 
for musical instruments ; and the horns, hoofs, bones, etc. , put 
to the same uses as those of the horse, ox and other animals. 






i 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 



INFLAMMATION IN GENERAL. 

In the majority of diseases to which sheep are liable, in- 
flammation of different parts of the body, either internal 
or external, is the prominent symptom, and is the foundation 
of most, often constituting the disease itself, and sometimes 
being the beginning or the ending of other diseases. The 
number, of such diseases during the progress of which an 
inflammation of a larger or smaller extent does not appear 
to take place is not very large. Their frequent occurrence, 
and also the dangerous and often deadly consequences of 
such inflammations, require the greatest possible knowledge 
of the most important events by which inflammations are 
indicated, and for this reason the same shall be here amply 
and fully described. 

Wherever upon any part or spot of the body an increased 
redness, an increased warmth, a swelling or extraordmary 
sensibility appears, inflammation is indicated; that is to 
say, such part or spot is inflamed. The functions of such 
an inflamed part are generally more or less disturbed and 
unhealthy, and consequently such disturbed functions are 
to be taken as a reliable and most characteristic mark of 
inflammation. All parts of the body (the epidermis or 
upper skin, the wool, the hoof, and the eyes excepted) are 

15 



16 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

subject to inflammation, although such inflammation ap- 
pears in the different parts of the body in as many different 
symptoms. Some of these parts are more vehemently and 
often er inflamed, and others less ; and the occurrence of 
such different symptoms may be explained by the following 
examples : 

I. Increased redness occurs always wherever a healthy part 
becomes afflicted wdth disease, this being the consequence of 
an increased accumulation of the blood in such parts, which 
in a healthy state contain no blood at all, but are now ex- 
tended and filled with globules of the blood ; and the larger 
veins receive larger quantities of blood and begin to swell. 
There are a great many different degrees in the increase of 
redness, the color of such inflamed redness changing from 
pale pink to cherry-red and even blackish-red. In those 
parts where the construction is of a spongy or loose nature, 
and which in their healthy state already contain a great 
many blood-vessels, and consequently ahvays appear of a 
more or less reddish color (as, for instance, the mucous 
membranes of the nose, the external membranes, the lungs, 
etc.), a more conspicuous and intensive redness is produced 
by inflammation than in other parts of a stronger and solid 
constitution, which do not contain as many blood-vessels 
(as, for instance, the bones, the cartilages and the trans- 
parent part of the eyes). The redness is not always of 
the same intensity during the progress of inflammation. 
In the beginning the redness increases with the develop- 
ment of the disease, and also disappears with the decrease 
of the latter, with more or less rapidity. When inflamma- 
tion occurs in sheep, the increase of redness is not always 
perceptible. The compactness of the wool, especially that of 
black sheep, the darkness of the color of the skin, prevent 
the inexperienced eye from observing such increase. The 
game may be said in regard to the intestines and all other 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 17 

parts covered by the skin. Nevertheless an increase of 
redness always takes place whenever an inflammation oc- 
curs, which may be observed at the dissecting of the car- 
cass, or whenever an internal part is exposed either by 
accident or design. The redness of the inflamed -womb or 
intestines is generally not perceptible on account of the 
situation of those parts, but may become visible whenever, 
from the injury of the abdomen or at difiicult birth, the 
intestines or the womb are turned outward and become in- 
flamed in the body. There are, however, some parts upon 
which in their inflamed state an increased redness is always 
perceptible without difiieulty (as, for instance, upon the 
mucous membranes, the nose and the vagina), as also upon 
the connecting membranes of the eyes, the udder, and 
where the body is aflected with pox. 

II. Increased warmth. An inflamed part contains a 
greater degree of warmth than in its healthy state, and 
such an increase is easily perceptible upon nearly all ex- 
posed spots, or such spots as can be reached by the hand. 
In internal inflammation, however, it is always very difii- 
cult, if not impossible, to detect such an increased degree 
of warmth. We have therefore to depend upon such in- 
dications as are either popularly known or are of a singular 
nature, or upon the increased temperature of the skin, the 
nose, the interior of the mouth, the breath, the eye, etc. 
The cause of the increase of warmth in inflamed parts is 
the increased accumulation and circulation of the blood, 
and the increased activity of the aflected parts. 

III. Swelling. The inflamed part almost always appears 
to be more or less enlarged or swollen, and becomes strained 
and hardened in a measure, according to the constitution 
of such inflamed parts. This swelling is caused by the in- 
creased pressure of the blood, efi'usion of the blood, lym- 
phatic or fibrous matter, and as a consequence of the 

2* 



18 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

increased warmth by whicli the textures become extended. 
There is always a difference in the degree of the swelling, 
which varies according to the intensity of the inflammation, 
or according to the place or structure of the affected parts. 

IV. Pains. Every inflamed part possesses a greater ir- 
ritability than in its healthy state, although not always in the 
same degree. The intensity and duration of the inflamma- 
tion, the place and constitution of the inflamed part, and 
particularly the presence of a larger or smaller number of 
nerves, are the causes of as many differences in the degree 
of such irritability. Besides this, it must be taken into 
consideration whether the affected part in its healthy state 
is more or less irritable and sensitive. For instance, inflam- 
mation of the eye is generally very painful, inasmuch as the 
organ in its healthy condition is very delicate and sensitive ; 
inflammation of the stomach is extremely painful, because the 
stomach contains numerous and very large nerves ; whereas 
inflammation of the lungs and heart does not cause such 
intense pain, because both these parts contain very few 
nerves. The inflammation of loosely-constructed or spongy 
parts, which easily enlarge, is generally less painful than 
that of those parts which are more compact and not so 
liable to extend. Often we perceive the pain only after 
pressing the inflamed part, as, for instance, in inflammation 
of the throat When inflammation of the brains occurs, the 
eye becomes red and fixed or staring, and inflammation of 
the eye causes pain to the eyes even in daylight. Whenever 
the lungs, to which air is most important, are afflicted with 
inflammation, the introduction of cool air causes a cough, 
which in a healthy condition would not occur : the lungs 
are therefore most liable to irritation and pain. 

V. Disturbed Functions. Whenever any part of the 
body is inflamed, the natural functions of that part are 
more or less changed, disturbed, or destroved. The know- 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 19 

ledge of tliis fact is of ths greatest importance, inasinucli 
as by its means we are enabled to detect a great many in- 
flammations, especially those of the internal parts of the 
body. It very often happens that such disturbances are 
the only and most reliable indications or signs of the pre- 
valence of inflammation. Without such a disturbance, the 
detection of many kinds of inflammation would be very 
difiicult or impossible during the life of the animal ; for 
example, inflammation of the lungs is not perceptible to 
the eye, because we are unable to see the principal marks 
of inflammation, such as redness, swelling, etc., but we are 
able to perceive a difficult, increased and short respiration, 
frequent and painful coughing, hot breath, etc. ; these are 
conspicuous deviations and disturbances of the natural 
functions of the lungs, and furnish the most important in- 
dications of the prevailing inflammation of the same. 
These disturbances alone are, however, said to be not suffi- 
cient to prove the truth of the assertion that an inflamma- 
tion of the lungs exists, because other indications, such as 
redness, swelling, etc^ are not sufficiently demonstrated. 
Such doubts are nevertheless entirely removed by experi- 
ence. We find, for instance, whenever a carcass is dissected 
and inflammation of the lungs proved, that the before- 
mentioned disturbances of the functions of the lungs have 
always occurred during the life of the animal. We must 
therefore presume that such an inflammation exists when- 
ever difficulties in the respiration, together with other indi- 
cations, occur. In some of the inflamed parts the disturb- 
ances of the natural functions are more conspicuous than 
in others, according to the place, the extent and the degree 
of such inflammation, and also according to the nature and 
importance of the natural fLuictions of such afiected parts. 
Inflammation of the brain produces the most vehement 
symptoms, the brain being the most delicate part, perform- 



20 DISEASES OP SHEEP. 

ing the most important functions. Inflammation of the 
brain also produces a great disturbance, whereas an inflam- 
mation of the spleen, of different parts of the glands, and 
•of different external and inferior parts, is of no such im- 
portant consequence. luflammation is very often followed 
or accompanied with more or less vehement fever, which in 
such cases is called inflammatory fever ; it is, however, not 
always the case that such inflammation is attended with 
fever, and the latter cannot therefore be reckoned among 
the necessary and reliable indications of the former. A 
great many external, and some of the internal, inflamma- 
tions are not accompanied with fever, particularly when 
the inflamed part is of a small extent, not painful, or when 
such inflammation is not very vehement. If, however, such 
an inflammation is of a vehement character, very extensive 
and painful, or affects any important or delicate part, etc., 
the fever generally occurs and becomes perceptible by 
means of the increase of pulsation and other incidents; 
for instance, there is no fever whenever inflammation oc- 
curs in consequence of a slight external injury to the skin, 
and fever always appears whenever the lungs or intestines 
are inflamed. The duration of inflammation varies mate- 
rially, and depends upon the place, the extent, the degree 
of intensity of the same — also upon the constitution of the 
afflicted animal, the cause of the disease and upon numer- 
ous other known or unknown circumstances. Inflammation 
is in most cases of a short duration, occupying a period 
varying from a few days to two or three weeks. In case a 
considerably longer duration occurs, such inflammation is 
called " slow or lingering fever," in which several of the 
inflammatory indications disappear, such inflammation 
then changing into another state or issue of the same. 
Every inflammation increases more or less rapidly to a cer- 
tain degree, and terminates in another issue. The most 



DISEASES OP SHEEP. 21 

prominent kinds of such issues are, — Diffasionj Suppura- 
tion, Ulcerationj Exudation, Callosity or Hardening, and 
Gangrene or Mortification, which are described as follows:. 

Istf Diffusion. This issue of an inflammation is the 
most desirable and beneficial, and in almost every case the 
consequence of prompt and suitable remedies. 

2d. Suppuration. Whenever a diffusion of the inflam- 
mation does not occur, and the latter continues with more 
or less vehemence, suppuration will probably and generally 
take place. Suppuration consists in the formation of a 
fluid, which in the beginning is of a thin and watery ap= 
pearance, but afterward changes into a fluid of a slimy and 
stronger consistence, without any remarkable smell, and in 
appearance like cream. The secretion of the inflamed 
part occurs either upon the surface or at the bottom of the 
same, and produces, whenever a larger amount of secretion 
takes place, the so-called boils or an abscess. All parts of 
the body are not in the same measure inclined to suppura- 
tion, although there is scarcely any part which under cer- 
tain circumstances cannot be affected with suppuration. 
The liver, spleen and muscles are very seldom affected with 
suppuration, whereas the upper skin, the cellular tissues, 
etc., very easily begin to suppurate. Suppuration is either 
produced by transformation of the fluids (such as blood, 
fibrous matter, etc.), which enter into the inflamed parts or 
is otherwise a secretion of the so-called carbuncles. 

3d. Ulceration. This represents another kind of suppu- 
ration, the former being of a mild nature, whereas ulcera- 
tion is of a malignant character ; for this reason the latter 
is sometimes called *' malignant suppuration." This is 
always the consequence of an inflammation. It consists in 
a sore, from which a certain fluid matter of a fetid smell 
emanates. Instead of healing, the sore changes into ulcera- 
tion by constantly enlarging upon and destroying the 



22 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

affected parts ; a certain spongy texture of a disagreeable, 
scarlet or bluish color, and called "proud flesh," is formed, 
which extends and grows over the opening of the sore. 

4th. Exudation. Properly, inflammation always* pro- 
duces a certain degree of exudation, but now we have to 
refer to such exudations only as occur after an inflamma- 
tion has subsided. Exudation consists of blood, water and 
fibrous matter. Bloody exudations are of rare occurrence, 
and are in most cases the consequence of a rupture of blood- 
vessels, occasioned either by external force or by an exces- 
sive swelling and overloading of such blood-vessels. Exu- 
dations and effusions of water, or of fluids which are very 
similar to lymph, very often occur, either in the interior or 
upon the surface of the membranes which cover the ab- 
dominal cavities, or in the cellular tissues. In many cases 
of inflammation of the chest, a large amouut of w^ater is 
exudated through the inflamed diaphragm. In others, and 
especially in nearly all violent inflammations, exudations 
of fibrous matter, often of very large amounts, take place. 
This often affects adjoining parts ; for instance, the lungs 
may adhere to and grow together with the chest. In most 
cases exudations of water and of fibrous matter occur at 
the same time. 

5th. Callosity. Whenever a part remains in a hardened, 
enlarged and stiffened state after an inflammation of the 
same has subsided, we call the issue of such inflammation 
" callosity." Such a callosity is nearly always the conse- 
quence of exudation of fibrous matter, remaining as a de- 
posit in the 2:)reviously inflamed parts. Such callosities are 
often connected with dangerous consequences, although in 
a great many cases only trifling or scarcely any conse- 
quences whatever are perceptible. 

6th. Gangrene. This is the most fatal of all issues, pro- 
ducing the decay of the diseased parts, or, if such a decayed 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 23 

part lias been of an important nature, the death of the 
animal. Whenever exterior or less important parts (for 
instance, the skin to a great extent) are affected with 
gangrene, there is no danger, but gangrene of the entrails 
always results in death. The degree of importance of the 
affected part, therefore, always increases the danger to be 
feared from gangrene. Gangrene generally arises from ex- 
tremely violent inflammations, which continue for a longer 
period ; also from mechanical causes, such as continual 
pressure or forcible contusions, from frost or burns (in frost- 
bitten or scorched limbs), from the effect of animal, vege- 
table and mineral poisons ; and wherever the circulation 
of the blood is entirely checked, either by accident or by 
design (for instance, when a wort or a scrotum is tied off, 
such parts always become affected with gangrene). Two 
kinds of gangrene exist — namely, the so-called hot gan- 
grene (mortification), and cold gangrene (sphacelus), the 
former being the last degree of inflammation, and con- 
stituting the intermediate degree or transition from in- 
flammation to the latter (sphacelus). Parts affected with 
mortification can never be reanimated. A gangrenous 
part ceases by degrees to be subject to pains, the swelling 
and the former hardness and tension caused by inflamma- 
tion partly disappears, and the impression made by the 
touch of the finger upon such a part remains for a con- 
siderable time. A gangrened spot is a dark red, bluish- 
black, pallid or pale gray color. The skin of such a part 
separates in different places of the ulcer and rises in the 
form of bladders, from which a thin, acrid and bad-smell- 
ing fluid issues, or sometimes in the form of air-bubbles 
of larger or smaller dimensions. A gangrenous part con- 
tains no warmth at all ; it is cold and painless, begin- 
ning to rot, and therefore entirely void of life. The de- 
tection of gangrene in interior or such parts as cannot be 



24 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

seen or felt is generally very uncertain or difScult, and we 
therefore have to depend upon incidental indications, or upon 
the effects which according to experience demonstrate the 
presence of such an affliction. Whenever, for instance, an 
inflammation of the entrails results in gangrene, the previ- 
ous vehement pains disappear entirely ; the skin is covered 
with a cold perspiration ; all visible mucous membranes 
become of a pallid color ; the breathing is cold ; pulsation 
ceases to be perceptible ; the glance of the eye is weak and 
waning, and the animal dies. The examination of the car- 
cass shows that all such incidents were the consequences of 
gangrene of the entrails, and like incidents demonstrate 
therefore in future cases the presence of such an affliction. 

Procreative causes — that is to saj^, such causes as occa- 
sion a direct and instantaneous inflammatory irritation — 
are very numerous and manifold, either of a general nature, 
affecting the whole body ; or of a local nature, affecting 
only certain special parts of the body. Among the causes 
of a general nature are particularly to be mentioned sudden 
cold, excessive heat or cold, damp and also very dry air, 
fatigue, sudden change from continual rest to vehement 
exercise, bad stable-air, continual effect of moisture and 
rain, sunstroke, etc. Local procreative causes are heavy 
strokes or blows, contusion, continual pressure, wounds, 
laceration, stones in the entrails or in the bladder, different 
kinds of poison, hot water, burns of every kinds, frost, dif- 
ferent kinds of contagious matter, etc. 

It is impossible to describe in general and with certainty 
the several degrees of danger incident to inflammation, be- 
cause inflammation may occasion the slightest and also the 
most important and dangerous disease. In this connection 
we have to consider, the place, the extent, the degree and 
cause of the inflammation, the constitution of the animal, 
the effects of the remedies and numerous other circum- 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 25 

* 
stances. The degree of danger in inflammation depends 

upon the delicacy and importance of the affected part. 

Inflammation of the brain and of the entrails is connecte-I 

with a considerably greater degree of danger than inflaLi 

mations of the exterior skin : the more extensive an inflaiT;-- 

mation the greater the danger. Interior parts are seldom 

subject to suppuration. In exterior parts suppuration is 

nearly of the same beneficial effect as diffusion, and therefore 

in most cases without any dangerous result. 

The issue into callosity or hardening is mostly of unim- 
portant consequence, except when interior or largely ex- 
tended parts are affected. Gangrene is always dangerous, 
and often of deadly consequences in case interior parts are 
affected by the same ; if, however, exterior or unimportant 
and less extended parts are affected, there is generally no 
danger. • 

Cure of Inflammation. — The cure of inflammation 
depends upon its duration, intensity, place, extent, cause, 
and numerous other circumstances, demanding different 
deviations in the treatment, according to the variety of ih^ 
case ; but there are nevertheless several common rules by 
which we may be guided. In the first place, it is necessary 
to inquire into and examine the causes, and w^hen discovered 
to remove them, or at least to render the same as harmless 
and innoxious as possible. Some causes are not discern- 
able, or have been already removed in the beginning of the 
inflammation ; as, for instance, when an inflammation has 
been caused by taking cold during vehement exertion of the 
animal. In a great many cases, however, the cause remains 
effective even after the beginning of the inflammation, and 
increases and maintains the disease. Extraneous matters 
which have been forced into the body must be removed ; 
acidulous or corrosive substances have to be diluted and 
washed away with water or milk, or to be covered and 
3 B 



26 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

their effect destroyed by means of slimy matter or oil. 
Compression, friction and all irritation must be avoided 
and removed, and the suffering animal as well as the affected 
part must remain undisturbed as far as possible. When 
inflammation takes place, exercise is always dangerous, a 
very few cases excepted. 

The treatment is either of a general character, operating 
upon the whole system or body of the animal, or of a local 
character, directing its effects mainly upon the affected 
part. Often both modes become necessary, although in a 
great many cases only the latter is required ; as, for in- 
stance, in the inflammation of interior parts, such as the 
lungs, the brain and the entrails, and also in violent in- 
flammation of the exterior parts. Inflammations, however, 
w^hich are connected with fever require a general cure. 

Remedies. Venesection or bleeding was formerly con- 
sidered one of the most important remedies ; at the present 
time, however, this remedy is not so frequently resorted to, 
on account of the employment of attenuating, cooling or 
aperient remedies, whose effects are preferable to those of 
venesection. The principal remedies employed in inflamma- 
tions are saltpetre, tartar, epsom, bitter or glauber salts ; sal- 
ammoniac, sulphuric acid, vinegar or yeast diluted with 
water, mixed with and served instead of the pure bran 
among the fodder or drink, or administered to the animal 
in form of a drink or injection. In case of constipation, 
injections are to be given repeatedly, the animal must be 
kept quiet in a warm place, and all drafts of air carefully 
prevented ; the food consisting of straw, green fodder, leaf 
and knob plants, bran ; hay is to be given in small quanti- 
ties, and feeding with corn must be entirely avoided ; the 
drink should consist of lukewarm water, mixed with sul- 
phuric aid or saltpetre, in as large quantities as the animal 
may desire. 



J 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 27 

ANTHONY'S FIRE. 

This disease, wliicli is known under different names, is, 
wherever it occurs, of a most dangerous character, and 
seems to be known in nearly all parts of the world, and es- 
pecially in Europe. It represents a special kind of mortifi- 
cation of the spleen (which will be more fully explained 
hereafter), and occurs in some particular seasons oftener 
than others, the climatic character of the country and other 
local circumstances causing as many different phases of the 
disease. In this connection it may be stated that the dis- 
ease very often appears in the northern part of Germany, 
especially in Prussia. I have been also informed by a 
Hungarian nobleman, who is the owner of very extensive 
tracts of land situated upon the banks of the Danube and 
of the river Theiss, that the average loss from this dis- 
ease, in said district, annually amounts to ten or twelve 
thousand sheep. It is further stated that in the county of 
Argyleshire, Scotland, the average loss per year amounts to 
seventeen thousand out of every seventy thousand sheep. 
This disease, although well known for a long time in our 
country, seems to increase with the importation of foreign 
or imported stock, which nearly always causes its more fre- 
quent occurrence and still more dangerous consequences. 
The disease generally arises very suddenly, without any 
previous perceptible indications, the animal enjoying a good 
appetite and hungei', the color of tlie skin being in its or- 
dinary state, and all other indications showing undisturbed 
health. Suddenly the whole body begins to tremble, the 
animal ceasing to eat, putting the feet wide asunder; it 
staggers and reels, appears to be senseless, drops down, with 
teeth grating ; the brea.thing is extremely short and difS- 
cult, the eyes become red and glaring, protruding from the 
sockets and insensible to the influence of light ; the mucous 



28 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

membranes of the mouth become of a blood-red color ; the 
animal involuntarily loses its excrements and urine, which 
latter is often covered or mixed with blood ; the animal at 
the same time kicking and throwing the legs about, turning 
head and neck backward, the breathing often causing a 
rattling noise^ and a bloody scum issuing from the mouth. 
Such attacks are often of only five or ten minutes' duration, 
after which they result in death. This is especially the case 
with young sheep; old sheep sometimes resist several of 
these attacks, and then die after a few hours. If death 
does not occur after such attacks, the animal becomes very 
weak and inanimate, the ears and legs being cold. Such 
sudden attacks are often followed by a gentle and soft ex- 
piration of life; the animal is often restless during the 
night, and its body is then in the morning found to be life- 
less. In case such disease is of longer duration, the animal 
is observed to remain apart from the herd, deeply drooping 
the head, the walk being inanimate and weak, the ears 
hanging downward, the neck swollen, the blood-vessels of 
the eye extended and filled with dark-colored blood ; the 
mucous membranes of the mouth are of a blood-red color, 
the dung is hard and covered with bloody slime ; and the 
perspiration produces an adhesive matter of a very bad 
smell. At last the animal begins to reel and tumble with 
convulsions ; blood flows from the nose, mouth and anus. 
In case of venesection, the blood flows easily and is of a 
dark-red color. In such cases death generally ensues in 
from one to three days, seldom later. When an animal 
becomes afflicted with this disease, it often happens that 
upon several places of the skin (especially upon such 
places as are little covered with wool, as, for instance, the 
belly, the udder and the inner side of the shanks) there ap- 
pear certain erysipelatous freckles, which in the beginning 
are of the form of small knots, and rapidly increase in size 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 29 

and number. The affected skin is in the beginning of a red 
color, "which changes very soon into a purple or bluish-red ; 
the skin swells, and upon different places small bubbles, 
filled with a watery fluid, appear. This erysipelatous form 
of blood disease is called St. Anthony's Fire. The progress 
of the disease is a little slow, but nevertheless of a dan- 
gerous character; so that death in most cases occurs in 
from twelve to twenty-fsur hours, and in some cases even in 
a shorter time or suddenly. It is scarcely necessary to re- 
mark that not all the symptoms above alluded to are shown 
in every case of this disease ; sometimes the disease causes 
such a rapid destruction that only a few of the described 
signs are allowed to mature. " Blood disease" is, however, 
easily detected, especially when several animals, are affected 
with the same, either at the same time or one shortly after 
the other. There is scarcely any other disease which can 
be confounded with this : there are certain indications of 
wind-dropsy or swelling which show somewhat of a simi- 
larity to the symptoms of blood disease, which may possibly 
be mistaken; but in such cases all doubts in regard- to the 
true cause can easily be removed by dissection, and also by 
other important diversities of both diseases hereafter to be 
described. The carcass of a sheep which died of blood 
disease putrefies in an uncommonly short time, the belly ex- 
tending largely, a cadaverous smell becoming perceptible ; 
and from mouth, nose and anus flows a thin, very dark- 
colored blood. 

In many cases the skin is found to be of a bluish-red 
color, especially under the throat and upon the breast. The 
stripped skin shows upon different places accumulations of 
blackish-red blood, and the blood of the veins is not con- 
gealed, but liquid, and has the color of tar ; the flesh is 
shriveled, of a bluish-red color and mellow. The abdominal 
cavity and intestines are filled with fetid air, which swells 
3* 



30 DISEASES OF SH$]EP. 

the abdomen to its utmost capacity ; a quantity of bloody 
water or blood is generally found in the cavity. The in- 
testines are of a dark-red, and nearly black in color and 
overloaded with blood ; the lungs and kidneys are shriveled, 
mellow and of a dark-red color; the bladder contains 
bloody urine, and in the windpipe a bloody, foam-like slime 
is to be found. The positive causes of the blood disease 
have hitherto not been sufficiently developed, but never- 
theless unceasing diligence and attention have succeeded 
in establishing certain reliable symptoms, and also in 
finding proper remedies. In regard to the question of 
the general disposition, we know that the degree of fullness 
and thickness of the blood increases the prevalence of the 
disease, so that sheep feeding upon rich and abundant pas- 
tures are generally most disposed to become affected with 
this disease. The principal cause, however, consists in sud- 
denly allowing large quantities of rich and very nourishing 
food to be given to sheep hitherto provided with scant or 
small quantities, by which means a sudden plethoric state is 
produced. Herds of sheep which receive only moderate 
food do not so easily become affected with blood disease. 
Another cause which produces plethora, and consequently 
blood disease, consists in want of exercise ; and this is the 
reason that blood disease oftener prevails amongst herds 
feeding upon pastures of small dimensions than amongst 
herds which are allowed to roam and feed upon largely ex- 
tended pastures. Other causes of said disease consist in 
the following : want of exercise among sheep kept in stables 
during the winter, feeding with plenty of swill, with musty 
clover, hay or stubble grass ; want of good drinking water, 
especially during hot summer days ; excessive heat ; ex- 
posure to the rays of the sun, sultry and stormy air, over- 
heated air in stables ; over-driving ; dampness of meadows 
which have been inundated; swamp air; unwliolesorae 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 31 

drinking water, especially that in which flax has been 
steeped; spoiled fodder; all kinds of musty hay; rotten 
potatoes, carrots and other root-plants spoiled with mildew 
and rust. It appears, however, that all these damaging in- 
fl.uences do not immediately cause said disease; it often 
happens that several of these circumstances combine their 
effects upon a herd without causing any apparent disease ; 
whereas it often appears under circumstances where none or 
only a few of the above influences have been observed. 
It is therefore possible that some unknown causes may pre- 
vail ; for instance, the particular composition of the atmos- 
phere in some localities, the topographical situation of the 
country, the electrical influences of the air, sudden cold or 
other unknown influences. It is also possible that several 
of these causes may combine to produce disease. Up to 
the present time nobody has succeeded in suflficiently ex- 
plaining this mystery. ISTo age is protected against the dis- 
ease ; it may happen to the tender lamb as well as to the 
oldest sheep. Young sheep, however, are a great deal more 
disposed to it than older sheep. The disease may occur 
during all seasons of the year, in summer as well as in 
winter, but generally occurs during the hot season, mostly 
commencing in May, increasing during July, August and 
September, and diminishing during the following months. 
Sometimes it prevails during several years among a single 
herd or within an entire district, increasing and diminishing 
in its destruction or vehemence according to the tempera- 
ture of the several seasons. The following special observa- 
tions may further explain the subject : 

1. In the hot season, although some cases may occur in 
winter, blood disease mostly prevails ; during the summer 
the largest number of cases are observed during July, Au- 
gust and September, especially during long-continued heat 
and dryness, and particularly when the air is sultry or the 



32 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

atmosphere is overloaded with electrical fluid before a 
thunder-storm. 2. A large number of cases occur upon 
pastures of a very abundant but loosely-constructed bottom, 
which is subject to sudden change from the influences of 
dryness or rain, by which influences the pasture may be- 
come drained or inundated in a very short time. 3. In 
deep valleys containing rivers and rivulets, where there is 
little draft of air, and the atmosphere is filled with ascend- 
ing vapors, where the solar rays, after gliding down the 
face of the mountains, concentrate upon the bottom of 
the valleys, and no ventilation by drafts of air or wind 
taking place, the animal must suffer from such permanent 
effects. 4. Blood disease often occurs upon lands or estates 
with differently situated soil, where the vegetation is easily 
destroyed by heat and dryness upon the higher, situated 
part, at the same time that abundance prevails in the val- 
ley, or a sudden change is produced after a rain. 5. Blood 
disease very often and generally occurs upon lands where 
the vegetation is subject to mildew or blight. 6. The dis- 
ease also appears upon lands of a very loose and sandy 
bottom, which, together with parts of its vegetation, may 
be washed away or spoiled with rain, where there are no 
drains to prevent the formation of cavities in which vegeta- 
tion may to some extent remain, and other parts exposed 
to rot or dryness. 7. It often happens amongst sheep feed- 
ing upon pastures which are from time to time subject to 
inundations. 8. It often happens amongst sheep which 
suddenly change from leanness to fattening. 9. Another 
cause of said disease consists in over-feeding with very rich 
and flatulent food amongst herds which are not accustomed 
to such feeding. 10. When over-feeding Avith grain and 
clover hay had taken place, the disease was generally ob- 
served to follow, even during winter. 11. The same thing 
happened when the stables were kept too warm. 12. The 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 33 

disease also results from sudden colds in summer, when tlie 
atmosphere after a thunder-storm, and especially after a 
hail-storm, suddenly cooled off; also from colds at the 
washing and bathing of sheep, or from exposure when the 
sheep remain in sheepfold upon meadows which previously 
had been filled by rain. 13. The inhalation of swamp air 
in the neighborhood of small streams caused the spreading 
of this disease. 14. It appears that young sheep up to 
their fourth year are mostly disposed to suffer from this 
disease. 15. The disease is generally taken by the fattest 
and most playful animals of the herd. 

A decrease or entire disappearance of this disease is ob- 
served under the following circumstances : 1. During the 
cold season. If the weather during summer-time continues 
to be cool, continuous rain causes the disease to disappear 
entirely. 2. It was observed that not a single case occurred 
amongst one part of a certain herd which was in stables 
and fed with dry food, whereas the other part of the same 
herd was feeding upon the meadow. When the animals 
were taken from the meadow into the stable, a decrease 
and entire disappearance of the disease took place, as like- 
wise when the herd was transferred from rich and abundant 
to barren pastures, from the valley to the hill, or to such pas- 
tures as contained little or so-called acidulous food. It has 
been generally observed that the disease abated as soon as 
a change was effected, whether it arose, from a transfer to 
different pastures, which produces a change of mastication 
and nourishment, or from a change to different places. 
Diseased animals have been cured by allowing them to feed 
upon potatoes. 3. Old or lean sheep are not so often 
afflicted with said disease as young or fat animals. 

As in all epidemic diseases, it may be questioned whether 
this blood disease is not also of a contagious character. 
It has been proven that when healthy sheep have been 



34 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

vaccinated with matter obtained from sheep which died in 
consequence of blood disease, the former always died in 
consequence. Dogs which were allowed to eat such car- 
casses did not die, whereas sheep bitten by such dogs always 
became afflicted with the disease. It may also affect man- 
kind if transferred by eating such diseased meat, or by the 
sting of an insect or by touching of the flesh, the skin or 
the blood of an infected animal. I can bear witness that 
in the year 1849 three shepherds belonging to an estate 
near Magdeburg, Prussia, died in consequence of having 
contracted this disease by contagion. Whether the disease 
may be transferred to other sheep, either by air or breath- 
ing or perspiration, cannot be determined with certainty. 
Horses and goats which smelled at the carcasses of such 
infected sheep suffered from the disease ; it was, however, 
not proven whether the mouth or nose of these animals had 
been soiled with blood of such carcasses. It is therefore 
necessary to recommend the most careful caution, espe- 
cially with men, whenever it becomes necessary to touch 
such carcasses or diseased flesh. To prevent the spreading 
of the blood disease it is advisable to part the diseased ani- 
mals from the healthy, and to give in the moruing and 
evening the following lick, consisting of two pounds of 
saltpetre, two pounds of glauber salts, two pounds of ground 
calamus, two pounds of laurel-leaves, two pounds of juniper- 
berries, one pound of golden sulphur ; which may be mixed 
with the food (clover being preferred). The above quantity 
must be mixed well, and serves for one hundred animals 
for two days, morning and evening. I can recommend the 
above remedy as the most efficient. Great care must be 
observed in regard to feeding, so that the change from 
stable-feeding to pasture-feeding is only to be allowed by 
degrees. In the morning the sheep must not be driven to 
pasture until the dew and moisture have entirely disappeared 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 35 

from the meadow, which depends upon the temperature and 
weather. At noon a shady and cool resting-place must be 
provided. Another preservative, as well as preventive, 
consists in the application of cold shower-baths, which may- 
be applied to the herd by means of a squirting engine, the 
nozzle of which is provided with a sieve, or by means of a 
garden-spout; the cold water to be applied at different 
times of the day, and until the animals are perfectly cooled. 
The herd may also be driven into cold or refreshing 
streams : in case of rain the herd must be allowed to re- 
main under the same at their pleasure. There appears to 
be a hereditary disposition to said blood disease ; it may 
therefore be presumed that in case of an extraordinarily 
frequent occurrence amongst certain Ifferds, the sale of the 
same and the purchase of other stock wdll prove the most 
profitable. 



SHEEP POX. 



One of the most destructive diseases amongst sheep is 
"the pox." This disease has been known since the year 
1698, but its origin is entirely unknown. It is perhaps the 
same case with this disease as with the human pox, which 
is said to have been imported from the East by contagion. 
It has been suggested that sheep pox may also have origi- 
nated in the Western part of the world, from the influences 
of the weather, from mildew and other causes ; but this has 
never been sufficiently proven, and it is therefore unneces- 
sary to enter into any dispute. From authenticated ob- 
servations it appears that the pox has reappeared in certain 
countries during certain intervening periods of eight, ten 



SQ DISEASES OE SHEEP. 

or twelve years ; whereas in other parts the reappearance 
of said disease has not been observed during fifty years. 
The local situation, the climate and commercial intercourse 
are very important matters in regard to the formation of 
said disease* We therefore find that pox is very often 
imported from foreign countries. Sheep pox may appear 
at any season and independently of all exterior influences 
or of the individual constitution of the animal ; affecting 
the slieep in winter or summer, during the wet and dry 
season, and befalling young as well as old, healthy as well 
as sick animals. It seems, however, that certain peculiar 
qualities of the atmosphere, of the weather, etc., produce 
an increase or decrease of the disease. 

Sheep pox consisits in a feverish, inflammable eruption 
of the skin, which is mainly discernible by the formation 
of inflammable pustules or protuberances upon the skin, 
secreting a particular fluid, and becoming covered with a 
certain crust, which at last drops ofi". The disease is con- 
tagious in the highest degree, and infects the same animal 
only once during its life ; so that a sheep which has once 
overcome this disease will never be again subject to it. 

The incidents and progress of this disease are mostly 
very regular and subject to certain rules. There are four 
distinct periods discernible during the progress of said 
disease, of which periods each occupies a certain time and 
presents certain appearances. These periods are called, 
1, the period of contagion ; 2, of eruption ; 3, of ripeness 
or maturity ; and 4, of healing or drying off. 

1. Period of contagion. — Several days (sometimes three 
or four) after contagion has taken place, the sheep appears 
to be sullen and weak, head and ears drooping, eating and 
ruminating less than usual, and showing an increased 
warmth of skin, especially about the ears. The symptoms, 
although appearing of so small importance that they are 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 37 

often overlooked, last for two or three days, after which the 
disease enters into its second period. 

2. Period of eruption. — This period begins on the sixth 
or seventh day after contagion has taken place. There 
appear scarlet-red spots (similar in appearance to fiea-bites), 
of different sizes and number, upon different parts of the 
surface of the skin, and especially upon such parts as are 
not covered with wool, such as the inner side of the shanks, 
the part of the breast v/here the fore legs join, the testicles, 
the lips and the eyelids. Such red spots are sometimes 
not larger than half an inch ; sometimes only a few are to 
be found, but oftener a very great number may be observed 
upon one particular portion of the skin. In the centre of 
these red spots, which are then very little swollen, there 
appears after twenty-four or thirty-six hours a small, pro- 
tuberant and very inflammable pustule, which extends 
deep into the skin and is very painful in case of pressure. 
This small pustule extends in size during the next day, 
arching upward, and arriving on the tenth day after con- 
tagion to its full form and size; the form being now in 
most cases circular, seldom oval or otherwise, appearing 
like a section of a ball. The smaller pox are generally 
high in construction, and the larger pox flatly constructed. 
The size of pox varies from that of a pea to a hickory nut. 
During the aforesaid growth of the pox the size of the red 
spot diminishes, and the pox itself receives a red circumfer- 
ence. At the eruption of the pox, and for several days 
after, a very vehement inflammatory state of the whole 
body of the animal is observed ; the sheep being very sick, 
eating and ruminating very little, showing great thirst, 
standing v;ith its head drooping and legs close together ; 
the walk is stiff and difficult, and the animal preferring to 
remain upon one spot. This difficult walk is generally the 
first indication of the presence of the disease. The head, 

4 ' 



38 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

oars, mouth and affected spots of the skin are of extra- 
ordmary warmth ; the gums, tongue, and eyes are very red, 
hot and dry ; the breathing increased. Toward the end of 
the second period a clear, thin slime flows from the nose 
and eyes, as if affected by neuralgia ; and when the lips, 
eyelids and the head contain a great number of pox, such 
parts are often swollen to such an extent that neither 
mouth nor eyes can be opened. 

3. iPeriod of maturity. — This period generally begins on 
the tenth day after contagion, and extends until the thir- 
teenth or fourteenth day ; in this time the indications of 
the former period (such as the inflammatory state) diminish 
by degrees. The pox upon the centre and apex of the skin 
shows a fading color, the pustule becoming of a bluish- 
white color ; the redness disappears from the inner part to 
the exterior; the red circle becomes paler and smaller. 
The upper skin of the pox separates from the bottom, and 
between both an exudation of a clear, colorless, translu- 
cent and adhesive fluid (the so-called lymph) takes place, 
by which the upper skin appears as a transparent bubble. 
During the next ten days the pox become paler, the surface 
of the same becoming less transparent, thicker and of a 
pale white color, the red circle disappearing entirely. On 
the thirteenth or fourteenth day the pox arrives at its full 
maturity or ripeness, being now of a clear white color, 
round and sometimes of a conical form ; the upper skin is 
very thin and of a chalk-white color, covering the so-called 
clear lymph in great quantities, which at the opening of 
the mortified upper skin flows in larger or smaller quanti- 
ties. By separating the epidermis from the base of said 
pox, the base appears of a dark red color and spongy con- 
struction, and extends somewhat above the skin. As soon 
as the period of maturity begins, the feverish and other 
general indications diminish by degrees; so that after a 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 39 

few days tliey entirely disappear, the sheep becoming lively 
again, the appetite reappearing, the discharge from the 
nose and mouth ceases, as likewise the s\yelling of the lips 
and eyelids, and the walk and movements become again 
free and easy. Only in case of an extraordinarily large 
number of pox, or in case of an irregular progress, some of 
the above-described incidents remain, such as the discharge 
from the nose and eyes, by which the latter are closed, the 
want of appetite and a difhcult respiration. 

4. Period of healing. — On the thirteenth or fourteenth 
day after contagion, or six or seven days after the eruption 
of the pox, the latter begins to heal and dry off, lymph be- 
coming turbid, yellow and similar to suppuration ; the pox 
growing flat and shrinking ; the upper skin deepening in 
the centre ; and after the next four or six days the entire 
pox, together with the lymph, forms into a hard and dry 
scab, which drops off and leaves a reddish, dry, scarcely 
perceptible mark, which at last entirely disappears. This 
last or so-called healing period lasts from four to six days ; 
so that the entire duration of the disease occupies about 
eighteen or twenty days. 

In most cases the eruption of all the pox takes place at 
one and the same time, except when an animal suffers from 
too large a number of the pox, the eruption of which may 
follow in short succession ; in such exceptional cases, how- 
ever, the interval of the different periods occupies only a few 
days. In all cases which I observed a regular succession of 
the aforementioned periods took place. When the disease 
occurs under the regular, and so to speak natural, progress, 
the pox is called " innoxious pox." This is, however, not 
always the case: numerous interior and exterior known 
and unknown influences alter the nature of the disease, and 
render it a most destructive plague. Under such circum- 



40 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

stances the pox is generally called " malignant pox," which 
generally presents the following indications : 

Several days before the eruption of the pox the animal 
appears very sick, ceasing to ruminate and eat, and being 
weary and enervated. Subsequently the pox breaks out 
upon nearly the entire skin, particularly upon the lips, the * 
jaws and eyelids, and upon the bare parts of the shanks. 
The affected parts of the skin are hot, swollen and stiffened ; 
the lips and eyelids especially are swollen to a large extent, 
such swellings, being extremely sensible to the touch or mo- 
tion. These pox are very numerous and larger than in in- 
noxious pox, being of a lengthy or oval form, whereas those 
of the innoxious pox are of a circular form. The pustules 
in malignant pox are apt to flow together, and by that 
means to form large and shapeless protuberances and ir- 
regular figures ; such pox are not very high, are flat in the 
centre, and, instead of being arched, their surface appears 
to be depressed ; the color of the pox, as well as of the in- 
termediate parts of the skin, is either scarlet, red, coppery, 
purple or bluish-red. It is extremely seldom that malig- 
nant pox takes the same regular course as innoxious pox ; 
the pustules do not arch or swell in the centre, they do not 
fill with lymph, and do not change to innoxious suppura- 
tion and into a dry crust ; but they remain in most cases in 
the same condition as above described until the death of the 
animal. In many cases they entirely recede before death ; 
sometimes they fill with a thin, acrid matter (instead of 
lymph), and change into deeply extending ulcers (instead 
of dry crust), thereby destroying large pieces of the skin, 
especially of the face, the ears and shanks. The affected 
sheep is scarcely able to move from place to place, and does 
not move without compulsion ; the animal is unable to 
move the lips and jaws, which are hot and swollen, and 
feel as if filled with knots and boils; it ceases to eat, the 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 41 

eyes are entirely closed, and the head appears to be swollen. 
The sheep is extremely sick, drooping its head and keeping 
its feet close together, with crooked back, difficult and in- 
creased respiration. The entire surface of the body, es- 
pecially the mouth, nose, lips and bare parts of the shanks, 
is greatly inflamed, very hot and sensitive; the animal 
suffers extremely from thirst, and cannot drink without 
difficulty, on account of the inflammation of the lips. In 
the first few days after the eruption of the pox, the mouth 
and nose discharge a certain spittle or slobber, consisting 
in the beginning of a thin fluid matter, which in a short 
time changes into a thick, tough and yellowish-white slime, 
and which in some cases is intermixed with bloody streaks; 
this slime, as well as the entire perspiration of the sheep, 
has an extremely offensive smell. The former generally 
hardens around the nostrils, forming a compact, tough and 
dark-colored crust ; at last filling the nostrils to such an extent 
that breathing is rendered almost impossible. The mucous 
membranes of the nasal cavities are inflamed and swollen, 
the nostrils become choked, the breathing difficult, causing 
a rattling noise, as also uneasiness to the animal. The 
swollen eyelids are closed, the eyeballs being very red and 
inflamed; there is a discharge from the eye; which dis- 
charge in the beginning is watery and thin, but afterward 
changes into a thick, suppurated matter, and by its adhesion 
to the eyelid causes the closing of the eye. In many cases 
a suppuration of the entire eye takes place, especially when 
the eyeball itself is affected with pox. The sheep staggers 
and reels, or prefers to lie down, and when lifted drops 
down again ; the w^ool separates easily from the skin, which 
is entirely covered with pox ; the flanks are sunken and 
hollow, tliQ. animal becoming extremely lean and afflicted 
with dysentery, which is generally followed by death. The 
disease, in receding shortly before its termination, sometimes 
4* 



42 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

cliaiiges into an inflammation of the throat or lungs, this 
being the most reliable indication of the near approach of 
death. Death generally occurs in from sixteen to twenty 
days, seldom sooner, and then only in cases where the pox 
has receded or changed into inflammation of the throat, or 
when the afilicted is of a very tender age. The diseased 
carcass putrefies in a very short time and causes a pestilent 
stench. When dissected, a great many pox are found upon 
the mucous membranes of the nose and windpipe, upon the 
lungs, the liver, the intestines, the tripes ; which pox, how- 
ever, have not exactly the same appearance as those of the 
exterior pox, looking like flat-formed sores. The pox, not 
always appearing of the same exterior form, have been 
classified accordingly, and difierent names have been adopted 
to distinguish such different forms; as, for instance, con- 
fluent, gangrenous, flat, brown, blue and pestilent pox. 
Such a classification is, however, entirely unnecessary, as 
there is only one kind of sheep pox; the difference in the 
progress and exterior appearance depends upon exterior 
and interior conditions and incidents, and not upon the in- 
trinsic nature of the pox itself. To prove this it is only 
necessary to state the fact that the so-called confluent and 
gangrenous pox may be transferred by contagion to animals 
afflicted with innoxious pox, and the latter may, by inju- 
dicious treatment or with intent, be changed into the most 
malignant and so-called flattened pox. The most proper 
classification appears to be that of " innoxious" and " ma- 
lignant" pox, or perhaps " regular" and " irregular" pox. 
The so-called " stone pox," which seldom occurs, has noth- 
ing to do with this disease, and its name as "pox" is im- 
proper. The so-called stone pox consists in small knots of 
the form of millet-seed, containing a small quantity of 
yellow matter, which dry off" in a period of four or five 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 43 

days, produce no fever, are not contagious and of no dan- 
gerous consequences. 

The sheep pox is one of the most destructive diseases, 
destroying all kinds of animals alike. The devastation 
caused by this disease is indeed enormous. It has been 
stated that out of eight millions of sheep, one hundred and 
fifty thousand have been destroyed by it in one year in 
Hungary; and it is officia*lly reported that the loss amongst 
herds in Austria (which amounted in the aggregate to 
about sixteen millions of sheep) has not been less than four 
hundred thousand sheep per annum. This official report 
was made at a time when vaccination for sheep pox had 
not yet been introduced. We are therefore enabled to form 
an idea of the dangerous consequences of such a disease. 
It has been calculated that the average loss caused by 
sheep pox amounts to from eight to ten per cent. This 
calculation, however, is not always to be relied upon. I 
have observed average losses of about six or eight per cent, 
under favorable circumstances, and losses varying from 
twenty to thirty and even from forty to sixty per cent., 
according to the vehemence of the disease or the effect of 
local and other influences. Last year I observed a case in 
England, in which, out of a herd of three hundred sheep, 
ninety-nine were destroyed by sheep pox, amounting to 
nearly thirty-three per cent. - 

We have now to consider the effect of sheep pox upon 
the animal itself, and in this we should be guided by 
the following rules, founded upon experience : The num- 
ber of pox indicates the degree of danger. The less the 
number, the less the danger, and with the increase of their 
number the danger increases, because in the latter case the 
pox flow together and form the so-called flattened pox. 
When there are only a few pox and their progress is regu- 
lar, when such pox are separated from each other, when 



44 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

they are of a circular and spherical form, discharging 
lymph which hardens into a crust, — then the disease is in- 
noxious and never of deadly consequences. Such indica- 
tions as fever, want of appetite, discharge from the. nose, 
etc., do not generally in such cases prevail, and we observe 
scarcely any indisposition of the animal at all ; the only 
observable indication then consists in the formation upon 
several spots of the skin of a dry, dark-brown scurf of the 
size of a pea. Such cases occur very often among large 
herds. When there are great numbers of pox, especially 
upon the lips and the head, then the disease becomes more 
critical, being in most cases accompanied with fever, dis- 
charge from the nose and want of appetite. But never- 
theless there is little danger in such cases, provided that 
the pox are of a circular and arched form, and that they 
discharge lymph, which hardens into a crust or scurf. The 
animal may of course become emaciated, or may lose an 
eye or a part of the wing of the nose, etc., but death occurs 
very seldom. The following indications present a larger 
degree of danger, viz. : w^hen the animal appears to be 
very sick in the beginning of the disease ; when there is a 
want of appetite and cheerfulness.; when the lips and eye- 
lids, or the entire skin of the head, are swollen; when the 
eruption of the pox occurs upon all parts of the body ; when 
the pox are so numerous that they become confluent and 
of shapeless form ; when they remain in a flattened condi- 
tion ; when the skin between the pox is highly inflamed 
and of the same color as the pox ; when in the beginning 
of the disease a discharge from the nose is observed ; when 
the respiration is difficult and accompanied with a rattling 
noise. In such cases the strength of the animal becomes 
prematurely exhausted by the vehemence of the fever and 
inflammation, the body being then very often unable to 
stand the regular course of inflammation, so that the pox 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 45 

cannot mature or discharge the lymph and change into scruf. 
In a few such cases the animal may be saved by means of great 
care and attention, but most are hopeless. The most unfavor- 
able indications, which are nearly always followed by death, 
are as follows : confluent, dry and flattened pox, of a coppery, 
purple or bluish-red color ; when the pox affects large and 
important parts in such a manner that the latter are destroyed 
by suppuration ; when there is an entire loss of appetite, an 
abundant discharge from nose, mouth and eyes of foetid mat- 
ter, which the animal refuses to lick ; when the pox recede 
or change into inflammation of the throat or lungs or into 
dysentery ; and when the animal is unable to stand. All ani- 
mals of the same herd do not suffer in the same degree of ve- 
hemence from the disease, even under the same circumstances, 
such as weather, pasture, food, care, etc. It has been ob- 
served that improved or superior stock is more liable to 
destruction than ordinary stock ; young sheep (except suck- 
lings) do not suffer so much as old sheep. Sucklings die 
very soon in consequence of pox — often in the first few days 
after eruption, and even before. Sheep which have been 
well fed, especially bucks, suffer the most ; ewes in ad- 
vanced states of pregnancy suffer greatly from the pox, and 
generally miscarry in consequence thereof. Sheep which 
feed upon stubble-fields, or which are lean from want of 
sufficient food, are seldom much afifected by pox. 

The following rules in regard to the influence of the 
weather or season are important: Extreme heat and ex- 
treme cold (especially the former) are dangerous : wet 
weather is most dangerous, and a heavy rain may destroy 
half of the herd if the animals are afflicted with pox and 
exposed to such rain. A mild, temperate atmosphere, rest 
and moderate feeding are of a beneficial effect in case of 
pox. There are, however, certain periods or years in w^hich 
the pox appears to be more or less dangerous in its con- 



46 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

sequences, and in such periods certain unaccountable influ- 
ences, such as an unknown state or composition of the 
atmospheric air, may exist. Sheep pox is of a very con- 
tagious character; of this there can be no doubt at all. 
All parts of the diseased animal contain contagious matter, 
especially the lymph, the blood, the discharges of the 
mouth and nose, the dung, the urine and the exhalation 
of the skin and lungs. Contagion may result either from 
immediate contact with said infected parts, or from the 
transfer of the poisonous matter by intermediate means or 
poisonous air. Contagion is generally introduced into a 
herd by single animals, which are or have been afflicted 
with pox, by means of the wool or skin of such animals, 
or when healthy animals feed upon pasture where diseased 
sheep have been roaming. The disease may also be trans- 
ferred by contact with infected clothing of men, especially 
fur, and even by dogs and poultry. The contagious matter 
of the pox, being of a volatile nature, can consequently 
become diffused by air. It is not known to what extent 
such a diffusion may effect contagion ; it is, however, pro- 
bable that within several hundred years such a diffusion 
may prove fatal. It is extremely seldom that pox breaks 
out in a single herd without any previous appearance of 
said disease in some other part of the neighborhood. The 
manner in which such infection from one remote locality to 
the other has been effected has been never sufficiently ex- 
plained, except in a very few cases. Such sudden and un- 
explained attacks only prove the intensity and subtilty of 
the contagious matter of sheep pox. Such matter pre- 
serves its nature and effects for a long time, even in the 
dry state, and long after the disease itself has ceased to 
exist. In the beginning only a few animals of a certain 
herd are affected by pox (probably from immediate infec- 
tion). It never happens that the entire herd, or the larger 



DISEASES OF SHEEf. 47 

part of the same, is at once taken sick ; if, however, such a 
case is observed, the owner of such an entirely diseased 
herd may be assured that either he or his employes have 
neglected the care of his flock. Sheep pox ahvays spreads 
gradually, and lingers according to the state of the tempera- 
ture of the air. Infection is accelerated by heat, and con- 
sequently when sheep are closely kept together in stables 
during wdnter-time the disease is very likely to appear. 
Sheep kept upon cool pastures during wet and windy 
weather are not so vehemently affected by pox. The 
average term during which all animals of a large herd 
become gradually afflicted with pox lasts from three to four 
months, and in some instances six months. The general 
rule is, that the shorter the interval of infection the greater 
the vehemence and danger of the disease, and vice versa. 
In most cases there are three periods in regard to the pro- 
gress of infection : The first period begins wath the infection 
of a few animals, which then (in the second period) infect 
about the third or fourth part of the herd. After a short 
interval or rest of aboutsixteen or eighteen days, these in- 
fected sheep impart the disease to the remaining healthy 
part of the flock (third period). This may be a conse- 
quence of the arrival of maturity in each separate case, 
-which maturity happens in nearly the same equal period. 
Certain animals are more or less disposed to infection, and 
this may be assigned as a reason why such animals do not 
become infected at all, or sooner or later. It may be said 
in this connection that in the average about four to six per 
cent, of the sheep belonging to a diseased flock are entirely 
exempt from infection on account of their constitutional 
disposition. It is extremely rare that all sheep composing 
a herd are likewise exempt. 

The treatment of an infected herd depends upon differ- 
ent circumstances, although the greatest care has to be 



48 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

observed in all cases where the disease is known to prevail 
in distant localities, whereby infection may happen sooner 
or later. As soon as it is known that the pox prevails 
among a herd, each separate animal has to be carefully 
examined by laying it upon its back and examining the 
bare parts of the shanks, of the belly, the breast, and also 
the face, especially the lips and eyes. In the beginning of 
the disease the pox are scarcely visible, and therefore the lips 
of the animal must be gently touched or rubbed with the 
finger to detect any knotty and rugged protuberances, 
which, when they are sensible to pressure, represent the 
pox. All infected sheep should be separated from the 
others and taken to very distant localities. If, however, a 
large part of the herd is found to be diseased, it is advisa- 
ble to keep the infected animals in their usual place or 
stable, which is now considered to be also infected, and to 
remove the healthy to other localities. In case of infection 
of only a few animals, and when the disease is still in the 
beginning, the spread of the disease may possibly be pre- 
vented, but such cases are very rare and unreliable. The 
aforesaid examination is daily to be repeated ; the person 
having the care of the diseased animals is not to be en- 
trusted with the examination, nor to be allowed to have 
any intercourse with the healthy part of the herd. 

The treatment of the regular or innoxious pox is very 
simple and requires no medical attendance, it being only 
necessary to subject the diseased sheep to a suitable and 
careful diet. In winter, and during cold, windy, misty or 
rainy weather, they should be kept in the stable ; cold and 
wet being of the most dangerous effect, the sheep being 
very sensible to such influences, notwithstanding the thick- 
ness of their fleece, and especially when the tender skin is 
inflamed and swollen from pox. The stable in which the 
sick animals are kept must be spacious and warm and pro- 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 49 

vided with plenty of dry-litter, a temperature of sixty 
to sixty-five degrees Fahrenheit being the most popular. 
During clear and warm weather the diseased sheep may be 
taken upon a dry and nourishing pasture ; care must, how- 
ever, be observed that such animals are not overheated by 
too much exercise, and for this reason it is proper to keep 
them in the neighborhood of the stable or some sheds, so 
that in case of a sudden rain sufficient shelter may be had 
at once. During very hot summer days the sheep must not 
be exposed to the sun, especially at noon, excessive heat 
resulting in dangerous consequences. During the night 
the sheep must be kept in stables, as the night dew and 
sudden rains interfere with the regular course of the dis- 
ease. There is always a smaller or larger number of 
exceptional cases in a diseased herd (of innoxious cases), 
where the disease appears to be of an irregular or malig- 
nant course or form. Such individuals must be treated 
with the greatest care; they must be separated from the 
others, and if possible taken to another locality, as by their 
perspiration the air becomes tainted and poisoned, and of 
dangerous effijct upon the other diseased animals. They 
must also be kept in warm and dry stables, or upon grass- 
plots, or upon meadows situated in the immediate neighbor- 
hood of the stables. 

A particular medical treatment is very difficult ; the end- 
less varieties in regard to constitution, age, etc., of the dis- 
eased animals, as well as the many different degrees of the ve- 
hemence of the disease, render it impossible to give general 
prescriptions ; the employment of medicaments being a costly 
matter and of little or doubtful use, and, where there are hun- 
dreds of diseased animals, almost impossible. It is there- 
fore advisable to confine the diseased animals to a proper 
diet and diligent care. They should always receive the 
best food, such as clover hay, potatoes cut into small pieces, 
5 C 



50 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

etc. The drink should consist of clean water mixed with 
a little ground salt or a small quantity of vinegar. Ani- 
mals whose lips are swollen to such a degree that they are 
unable to eat should be fed with drink composed of water 
and flour or bran, whichj in case of refusal, may be repeat- 
edly poured into the mouth ; otherwise the animal must 
die from starvation. Such infusions may properly consist 
of barley groats, to which a little ground salt is added. 
The eyes, which are closed from inflammation and hardened 
matter, must be washed, and the matter removed by means 
of bathing with lukewarm water or milk. The nostrils, 
which are in like manner obstructed, should also be bathed, 
and the obstruction carefully removed. In case of necessity, 
the administration of medicines, as likewise the special 
treatment of local diseases, such as inflammation of the 
eyes, joints and sockets, throat or lungs, must be entrusted 
to practical and experienced persons. As soon as it is as- 
certained that pox prevails amongst a herd, such a fact 
ought to be made known to the neighbors and authorities, 
so that the sjDreading of this dangerous and devastating 
plague may be in due time prevented. When sheep pox 
has ceased to exist in a herd, the poisonous matter has to be 
destroyed as far as possible. The carcasses of all such dis- 
eased animals must be interred as deep as possible, together 
with skin and wool ; the dung should be ploughed under. 
The walls, stalls and all other fixtures of the stables or 
sheds in which infected animals have been kept must be 
whitewashed ; and to make such disinfection more eifective, 
a certain quantity of chloride of lime must be added to the 
whitewash (say about two pounds of chloride of lime to a 
pailful of whitewash). Many have been of opinion that 
the employment of certain medicaments would be a means 
of preventing or abating the disposition to sheep pox, and 
it was therefore recommended to rub the animals under the 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 51 

throat witli a mixture consisting of lard, one pound ; cam- 
phor, a half ounce; and assafoetida, a half ounce. Al- 
though for a certain time such a treatment enjoyed a cer- 
tain reputation as a preventive, it was subsequently found 
to be inadequate, and of as little use as all other remedies. 
There is still another remedy to be mentioned (besides vac- 
cination, of which a full description will be given hereafter). 
Such a remedy, although also of doubtful consequences, 
consists in all possible measures by which the transfer of 
the pox from and to other localities may be prevented, or 
rendered impossible, especially when it is found to prevail 
in neighboring places. All persons, all animals or things 
which have been in contact with a diseased herd must be 
kept separated from healthy herds, and the latter are not to 
be permitted to feed or roam upon pastures, ways or pas- 
sages (or in the neighborhood of such pastures, etc.) which 
have been used by diseased animals : a distance of at least 
four hundred yards from such infected places ought to be 
carefully observed. Notwithstanding all such precautionary 
measures, pox has often appeared in such separated herds, 
and the owner of the stock is therefore unable to account 
for such unexpected and unavoidable attacks. 

Vaccination of Sheep Pox. — After enormous losses 
in sheep, and after all other precautionary measures proved 
to be of no effect, vaccination was at last thought of It 
was already known that the so-called human small pox 
could be prevented by vaccination, and sheep pox being 
very sisiilar in its nature to human pox, the idea of pre- 
venting it also by vaccination was indeed easily conceived, 
and proved beneficial in its results. Since the introduction 
of vaccination, sheep pox has ceased to be a perpetual 
plague to whole countries, and only occurs amongst single 
herds or in limited districts. Vaccination consists in the 
intentional and artificiaJ production of a disease similar to 



62 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

sheep pox, but of a very gentle and innoxious nature, by 
which means the liability of the vaccinated animal to- be- 
come afflicted with the natural and more vehement or 
malignant disease is destroyed. In other words, vaccina- 
tion is the production of a mild disease as a safeguard 
against a more vehement one. Vaccination is effected by 
introducing a small quantity of pox-matter under the 
epidermis of the animal by means of a small incision. 
Yaceination was formerly vehemently opposed by many 
persons on account of the unsatisfactory result of several 
cases of vaccination ; which results were no doubt produced 
by improper treatment and a combination of other un- 
favorable circumstances. 

Like all other valuable and beneficial inventions, vac- 
cination has had its trials and obstacles, until at last, suc- 
cess crowning its own merits, and being more generally in- 
troduced, certain rules in the manner of operation were 
established according to experience ; so that at the present 
time only a few opponents may be found, and those only 
among ignorant or prejudiced people. The most important 
advantages of vaccination are as follows : 

1. Natural pox generally destroys from twenty to fifty 
per cent., and sometimes even a larger percentage, of an 
infected herd, a destruction of only eight or ten per cent, 
being a very rare and fortunate exception ; whereas the 
destruction among vaccinated sheep very seldom exceeds 
four or six per cent. ; in many cases there is a still smaller 
loss, and sometimes no loss at all. I recollect a. case in 
which out of a herd of forty thousand vaccinated sheep 
only ten animals died. 2. Natural pox generally prevails 
in an infected herd from three to six months ; whereas a 
vaccinated herd is relieved from pox in four or six weeks. 
3. The amount of wool destroyed by the disease of infected 
animals is a very considerable loss, no such loss occurring 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 53 

amongst a vaccinated herd. 4. Natural pox may happen 
at all seasons of the year and under all possible circum- 
stances, whereby another considerable loss may be incurred 
by the infection of ewes, which destroys the ewes as well as 
other lambs ; but vaccination can in most cases be post- 
poned until a proper time, and the loss thereby in some 
measure avoided. 

The above-mentioned facts alone are sufficient to show 
the manifest advantage of vaccination, a still greater 
benefit being, however, observed when such vaccination is 
undertaken in due time, inasmuch as even the best remedy 
may lose somewhat of its effects if applied too late. Con- 
sequently, if a herd is already afflicted with pox, only the 
disinfected or healthy animals can be vaccinated with a 
beneficial result; and even in such cases a great many 
sheep may be saved and the duration of the disease con- 
siderably shortened. A vaccination undertaken under such 
circumstances is called "vaccination in distress." Such a 
vaccination, although of comparatively less benefit, ought 
to be undertaken under all circumstances, except upon 
ewes going with lambs ; in such cases, the ewes should be 
examined daily and the healthy separated from the in- 
fected, until the danger of infection appears to be removed, 
which will be more fully explained hereafter. When the 
disease is know^n to exist in the neighborhood, the owner 
cannot do anything better than to vaccinate his flock, and 
by this means to prefer a probable and small loss to a large 
loss of an uncertain extent. In such a case we call such 
an operation " precautionary vaccination," and it is always 
advisable in the case named. Experience proves that all 
other precautionary measures are inadequate to prevent 
the transfer of sheep pox from one locality to another ; and 
if such a precautionary vaccination is neglected, vaccina- 
tion in distress may be afterward required, and a partial 

5« 



54 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

result only obtained. There is still another or third class 
of vaccination — " preventive vaccination" — which consists 
in the continual yearly vaccination of the grown-up stock, 
or animals born since the last regular vaccination of the 
herd. Such a preventive vaccination of course offers great 
advantages over the so-called "vaccination in distress" 
and " precautionary vaccination," allowing the free choice 
of proper season and of other favorable circumstances, and 
causing only an inconsiderable loss. In many countries, 
especially in Austria, such a preventive vaccination is 
generally in use: the grown-up lambs are regularly vac- 
cinated in the spring, when such lambs are from three to 
four months old, the general result being a very consider- 
able diminution of the former devastations caused by this 
plague. There are, however, certain parts or countries 
where the recurrence of pox only happens in very distant 
periods, say in ten or twelve years, and even more seldom ; 
and on account of the short duration of the life of sheep 
no danger may exist during several generations ; so that 
preventive vaccination is not required and is unnecessary. 
Such preventive vaccination is therefore only to be recom- 
mended for particular localities and under particular cir- 
cumstances ; that is to say, for those localities in which 
sheep pox is known to recur after short intermissions. A 
timely and properly executed " precautionary vaccination" 
is in most cases sufficient to prevent losses from infection. 

The selection of vaccine-matter is of the greatest import- 
ance, inasmuch as only by means of proper vaccine-matter 
a reliable prevention of a vehement or malignant disease 
can be effected. All parts of an animal afflicted with pox, 
especially the dung, urine and other discharges, the blood 
and other humors or fluids, are contagious, but probably 
only during certain periods of the disease. It is therefore 
necessary to establish certain rules for the selection of the 



I 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 65 

proper vacciner-matter and for the use of the same at a 
proper time, otherwise an unfavorable or dangerous result 
may be the consequence. According to experience, segre- 
gated lymph forms the best vaccine-matter ; such lymph is 
to be collected from natural pox, on the sixth or seventh 
day after eruption. It must be perfectly clear and fluid, 
like water. Thick, turbid and suppurated lymph produces 
in most cases no pox, or only a sore, and the use of the 
same offers no protection at all. It may, however, happen 
that a sufiicient quantity of clear lymph cannot be obtained 
from natural pox (especially when there are great numbers 
to be vaccinated). In such a case the blood emerging 
from the incision of natural pox may be used as a perfectly 
satisfactory substitute for lymph. Among the sheep w^hich 
I have had occasion to vaccinate, at least thirty thousand 
have been vaccinated with such kind of blood (for want 
of lymph), and the result proved to be entirely of the same 
satisfactory character. The same observation occurred to 
many other professional men and owners of sheep. It ap- 
pears, therefore, that no difference exists between vaccina- 
tion with clear lymph and that with the blood or bloody fluid 
of the pox ; if, however, plenty of lymph can be had, the 
latter is preferable. In case such clear lymph cannot be 
procured, the blood must be taken from pox which has ar- 
rived at the so-called state of maturity, especially when 
such pox still contains a small portion of clear lymph ; the 
upper skin of such pox must be of a bluish- white color and 
already separated from the textures below. Care must be 
taken to select only such pox the maturity of which is not 
already perfected; the blood of perfectly ripened pox 
(being covered with a very thick and perfectly white skin 
and tending to fall off) is in many cases of no avail. It is 
further advisable to take the vaccine-matter from young, 
strong and otherwise healthy animals, where the pox is of 



56 diseases' of sheep. 

a regular course or progress, and where thd animals do not 
suffer from vehement inflammation or general bodily afilic- 
tion. If vaccine-matter is transferred from sheep suffering 
from pox together with chlorosis, or so-called green sick- 
ness or rot, the effect of such matter is destroyed ; the vac- 
cination results only in the formation of a sore, which ren- 
ders no protection and no formation of further useful vac- 
cine-matter. It has been also ascertained that other diseases 
of sheep cannot be transferred or propagated by vaccination 
with matter obtained from such otherwise diseased animals. 
Suppurated matter or blood obtained from overripe pox de- 
stroys the intended effect of vaccination, and in some 
cases natural pox is the result of such improper treatment 
(from which result ignorant people are inclined to believe 
that vaccination is always a failure). It is further preferable 
to obtain vaccine-matter from vaccinated sheep ; and in case 
no such matter can be had, it should be obtained from in- 
fected animals whose pox is of a regular and of the least 
vehement nature. Natural pox are smaller than vaccinated 
pox, and consequently only a small quantity of lymph can 
be obtained from the former ; for this reason the blood from 
natural pox during its proper maturity must be used. 
Lymph may be preserved for a considerable time without 
losing anything from its effects ; for this purpose it should 
be collected in very small vials, or so-called capillary tubes, 
which must be carefully corked and sealed up with cement 
or wax, and kept in a jar filled with sand, and in a cool 
place. In this way the lymph may be preserved from four 
to ten months. Another means of preserving vaccine- 
matter consists in collecting it by means of wool or cotton, 
to be carefully sealed up in glass vessels. There are, how- 
ever, certain exceptions recorded, in which the most care- 
fully preserved vaccine-matter has, after a short time, lost 
its effective power. The preservation of lymph having in 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 57 

several cases proved inefficient, and there having been a 
difference of opinion in regard to the efficiency of " precau- 
tionary vaccination," the establishment of certain so-called 
" vaccine depots" Avas suggested, and such institutions have 
been duly established, in connection with large estates, in 
some parts of Austria. The proper management of such 
vaccine depots, which involved considerable expense and 
great care, consisted in the separation of small flocks, keep- 
ing the same at some remote and isolated spot from the 
main flock, and vaccinating only about ten animals of such 
separated flock ; from these a single animal possessing the 
most favorable qualities was selected from which to obtain 
the vaccine-matter, by which another lot of ten sheep were 
vaccinated, and so on until the arrival of the proper time 
for the vaccination of the entire grown-up stock. Such a 
mode of operation offers, of course, the surest means to 
have good vaccine-matter of sufficient quantity on hand 
when required. But this mode of obtaining and preserving 
good vaccine-matter was not the only object or purpose of 
such institutions ; it was also believed that such repeated 
transplantation or propagation of lymph through a large 
number of healthy sheep would at last produce a very mild 
and entirely innoxious form of pox, without lessening the 
protective virtues of the vaccine-matter of the same ; thereby 
also avoiding a general infection or death from such disease. 
Such a supposed mitigation was called " Culture or mitiga- 
tioij of vaccine-matter," and such vaccine-matter was said to 
possess the following advantages over vaccine-matter ob- 
tained from natural pox, namely : 1. Qultivated vaccine- 
matter was said to be of the same preventive power against 
infection from natural pox as matter taken from the latter. 
2. It was believed that cultivated vaccine-matter is ren- 
dered milder by each further transplantation, forming only 
a single pox upon the vaccinated spot, and avoiding a 



58 DISEASES OP SHEEP. 

general or dangerous pox disease. 3. It was also said that 
sheep vaccinated with such cultivated matter (on account of 
its mild nature) could be kept amongst other sheep without 
infecting the latter, thereby avoiding any danger to neigh- 
boring herds. The first assertion is perfectly correct, inas- 
much as the vaccine-matter does not lose any of its power 
of protection by any number of transplantations. The 
two other assertions, however, are incorrect. Although 
there may be some apparent reasons for the same, experience 
proves their utter fallacy. I recollect that the loss in tw^o 
very large herds w^hich I had vaccinated with matter ob- 
tained from natural pox only amounted to one-half and to 
one per cent, respectively ; whereas the loss among herds 
vaccinated with cultivated matter (of the tenth or twelfth 
migatory degree) amounted to from two to four per cent, 
respectively. I was also informed by the master-herdsman 
of- a large estate in Austria that the losses among his herd, 
W'hich had been vaccinated from cultivated vaccine-matter 
obtained from one of the above-mentioned vaccine depots 
(such matter having been transplanted more than one hun- 
dred times), amounted to twelve per cent., although alL 
other precautionary measures had been duly observed. 

The selection of proper places for vaccination is of great 
importance. When vaccination was first introduced, it 
was thought proper to execute the operation upon the in- 
terior and bare part of one of the fore legs : such treat- 
ment was, however, abandoned, the effect of the same being 
a very dangerous friction, causing inflammation, lameness 
of the limb and ^ large number of pox. To avoid such 
friction the interior and bare parts of the hind leg were 
then selected, the result being, however, the same. Sub- 
sequently, the lower part of the abdomen, near the navel, 
was tried, and also found to be an improper place for vacci- 
nation. After many trials and experiences, it has been 



DISEASES OF SHEEP, 59 

generally admitted that the most suitable place for vacci- 
nation is the inner side of the ear, being very convenient 
for operation, and offering in most cases the greatest ad- 
vantages in every other regard. Vaccination has been also 
effected upon the tail, and although the sheep suffered no 
inconvenience, and the result being the formation of a 
large pox, ^vhose preventive power is undeniable, it ap- 
peared, nevertheless, that the inner side of the ear offers 
greater advantages than all other methods of vaccination. 
It must be also here remarked that a greater quantity and 
better quality of lymph is obtained from so-called ear pox 
than from tail pox. 

Mechanical system of vaccination. — There have been many 
different ways of vaccination ; as, for instance, several 
small incisions were made into the skin and the vaccine- 
matter rubbed thereupon; or a woolen or cotton thread 
soaked in lymph was drawn through the ear or other parts 
of the body under the skin; but, after all, the ear was 
selected as the most proper place. In front of the open 
door of the stable a hurdle is placed, and in front of the 
latter a table and a chair for the accommodation of the 
operator. The sheep from which the vaccine-matter is to 
be taken must be laid upon a bench to the right of the 
operator, the sheep to be bound by its legs and to be held 
by an assistant. The animals which are to be vaccinated 
are now taken from the stable, and one after the .other laid 
upon the table, with their backs downward. Another 
assistant holds the hind legs with his right hand and the 
fore legs with his left hand, pressing the neck of the 
animal under his left arni. The operator now holds the 
tail of the animal with his left hand, turning or twisting 
the tail in such a manner that the bare part of the skin 
becomes somewhat compressed ; in the mean time, the as- 
sistant uses the dull edge of the needle (used for vacci- 



60 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

nation) to remove any dirt adhering to the pox, and open- 
ing the white upper skin of the same by means of incisions, 
catches the lymph into the receiver or furrow of the needle, 
which he now hands to the operator, who inserts the needle 
(holding it horizontally) at a point somewhat in the middle 
of the tail, and not less than five or six inches from the 
anus ; the needle should be pressed lengthwise under the 
skin, producing an incision of about one-eighth or one- 
sixth of an inch in length. After this the operator will 
give a slight turn to the needle, to allow the lymph to flow 
from the furrow upon the flesh ; and this done, the needle 
may be removed after slightly pressing the incised skin. 
In the same manner all the animals of a herd may be 
operated upon one after the other. It is, however, advisa- 
ble to have only male sheep vaccinated upon the tail ; 
ewes have to be operated upon in another manner. It has 
been observed that natural pox, as well as the last-men- 
tioned and so-called tail pox, generally furnishes only a 
small quantity of lymph ; and in such a case the blood or 
bloody fluid of such pox may be used with the same bene- 
ficial effect. It is, however, advisable to select those vacci- 
nated sheep whose pox contains the greatest quantity of 
lymph. The so-called tail pox, if in proper condition, 
contains sufficient vaccine-matter for two or three hundred 
sheep, which matter accumulates upon the edge of such 
pox, from whence it is to be obtained by cutting off" the 
upper skin. The animal whose matter is to be used must 
be put in such a position that the other animals are not 
exposed to the vapors of the former. 

Vaccination of the ear. — As in the before-described opera- 
tion, the animal whose matter is to be used for vaccination 
must be laid upon a bench at the right hand of the opera- 
tor, who now himself has to fill the needle with vaccine- 
matter and to hold the animal to be operated upon at his 



DISEASES OE SHEEP. 61 

left side, the animal to be put in a sitting position. An 
assistant must be at hand to keep the animal quiet and 
fast during the operation by grasping the neck of the same 
with his right hand, and to hold its back straight with his 
right leg. The operator now seizes with his left hand the 
right ear of the animal, bending the ear over his fore 
finger, and keeping the same between his thumb and fore 
finger in such a position that the inner side of the ear 
is exposed and ready for vaccination. The skin is now 
pierced with the needle and the vaccine-matter introduced 
in the same manner as in the so-called tail vaccination. 
The animal may also be held in a different manner ; the 
assistant seizing the same by its back and leading the 
animal with its head between the knees of the operator. 
In both kinds of vaccination all other proceedings are of 
the same description. Under all circumstances it is advis- 
able cautiously to introduce the needle under the upper 
skin and not deeper, otherwise a vehement inflammation 
or gangrene may ensue and the life of the animal en- 
dangered, as has been observed in several cases. It is, 
however, admitted that such cases are very rare, and we 
only mention such occurrences as a reasonable precaution. 

Process of the vaccinated pox. — On the second day after 
vaccination the small wound generally disappears, pro- 
vided the incision or cut is not very deep. On the third 
day a red point appears, forming a small knot, which is 
now growing larger and becoming painful. On the sixth 
or seventh day fever of a more or less vehement, but 
generally of a gentle nature, ensues. Sometimes it happens 
that upon other places beside the vaccinated spot pox ap- 
pears ; and in such cases the animal is affected with all the 
sufferings incident to natural pox of irregular form. On the 
eighth day the pox is largely extending, until on the tenth 
or eleventh day it has arrived at its full dimensions, being 



62 DISEASES GF SHEEP. 

then of a scarlet-red color, glossy, very painful, hot, and 
enclosed by a red circle ; its diameter being generally from 
one inch to an inch and a half. From the eleventh to the 
thirteenth day the color of the pox fades, the elevation of 
the pox increasing ; at the same time the clear and watery 
lymph settles around the edge of the pox, so that on the 
thirteenth day the greatest amount of lymph is formed. 
After this time the lymph changes into a thick and sup- 
purated slime, the pox shrinks and changes into a dark- 
brown scurf, which after twenty or thirty days drops off, 
leaving a scar often of a large size. Such is mostly the 
case with tail pox, the incidents of ear pox being some- 
what different, namely : there is less intensity of redness, 
the size of the pox being that of a pea, the skin extending 
and elevating largely, containing a larger amount of lymph, 
which latter produces so much more vaccine-matter ; the 
natural pox having the appearance of a well-filled bladder 
or bubble, the scurf being of less thickness and dropping 
off easily. The entire ear appears to be swollen often to an 
inch in thickness. There are numerous deviations from the 
regular progress of vaccinated pox above described ; some 
of these deviations are unimportant ; others, however, are 
more or less critical. It often happens, especially with ear 
vaccination, that so-called side pox arise in the neighbor- 
hood of the vaccinated spot. If such side pox are of a 
regular form and progress, and not too numerous, there is 
no danger ; there are, however, cases of vaccination in 
which a general pox disease may arise, which produces the 
same appearance and danger as the malignant natural pox. 
But such cases occur very seldom, and are nearly always 
the consequence of bad management. Another deviation 
from the regular course of vaccinated pox consists in the 
difference of time required for the formation and maturity 
of the pustules, such difference being occasioned by the in- 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 63 

fiuence of the weather and temperature, warmth accelera- 
ting the progress, and cold or wet weather causing delay, 
and even in some cases destroying the effect of vaccination 
more or less. Vaccinated pox, which matures and sup- 
purates in an extraordinary short time, say in from four to 
six days, is generally without protective effect, and is there- 
fore called false pox, this being often the consequence of 
defective vaccine-matter. In some cases a general eruption 
of red spots upon the skin is observed : such eruption dis- 
appears in twenty-four to thirty-six hours, and presents no 
danger, provided the pox retains its regular form and there 
is no other incidental disease. 

There is no need of any particular precaution or treat- 
ment of sheep previous to vaccination ; only be careful not 
to expose such sheep to rain or heat, or to excite the circu- 
lation of the blood before operating. It is therefore most 
proper to keep the herd quiet in the stable before vaccina- 
tion, or, if such sheep have to be driven a long distance to 
the operator, to keep the animals quiet for a day after such 
drive and before operation. It seems further that the most 
beneficial result is produced by vaccination when the vac- 
cine-matter is not allowed to pass through all the blood- 
vessels of the body ; and therefore it appears again that the 
ear or tail is the most proper place for vaccination, inas- 
much as these parts contain the least number of such 
vessels. 

The treatment of sheep after vaccination is very simple 
and requires no medical superintendence. On the tenth or 
eleventh day after vaccination of a herd, each single sheep 
must be examined to detect those whose vaccination has 
proved ineffectual, and in such cases the operation should 
be repeated, the lymph or vaccine-matter to be taken from 
the pox of some other animal of the herd. In case such 
second vaccination prove of no effect, the animal may be 



64 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

regarded as entirely indisposed to the pox disease, and 
therefore a third vaccination is unnecessary. After the pox 
has ceased to exist, a thorough cleaning of the stables and 
all fixtures which have been exposed to the vapors and 
contact of infected or vaccinated sheep must be under- 
taken. 

In conclusion, it may be remarked that goats which have 
been in contact with sheep diseased of pox may also take 
the same disease with like effect. Vaccination may in such 
cases also be resorted to, although under greater difficulties ; 
and if such lymph is transferred back from vaccinated 
goats to sheep, the benefit is the same. 



VERTIGO OR STAGGERS IN SHEEP. 

The devastations caused by this disease are generally 
known, the yearly average loss being calculated at from 
five to six per cent., and there are certain instances on 
record where the loss amounted to fifty, sixty and seventy 
per cent, amongst the young breed in certain countries, es- 
pecially in Germany. This disease being nearly always 
found amongst all herds, it may be regarded as producing 
the greatest comparative loss of all diseases. Young sheep 
or lambs, especially those of the age of from five to eight 
months, are most frequently attacked with vertigo. 

The following are the incidents of vertigo in its perfect 
state: The diseased lamb is more or less deprived of its 
senses and of the functions of the organs of motion ; the 
animal is weak and its motions difficult; it staggers and 
reels, and prefers to lie down, and once down, it remain? in 
a state of stupefaction, there being very little or no ap] e- 
tite. The gait or walking of the diseased animal always 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 65 

describes a circle, of larger or smaller dimensions according 
to the progress and state of the disease (a straight gait 
being a very seldom occurrence), the animal lifting its feet 
very high and running against everything. The stupefac- 
tion and senseless state increases by degrees, the animal 
then being unable to seek its food, eating very little, and only 
when food is forced into its mouth ; and even in such a case 
the chewing is often interrupted, as if the animal forgets 
eating such food. Finally, the lamb ceases eating entirely, 
being unable to stand, laying its head sideways, and re- 
maining in a perfect stupor and without motion until death 
occurs sooner or later — often in a few weeks after the be- 
ginning of the disease. When the disease has arrived at 
an advanced degree, a soft place may be detected upon the 
skull by pressing the same with the thumbs of both hands. 
Here the so-called worm-bladder has its location ; this 
worm-bladder presses the skull-bone, reduces its thickness, 
and produces the yery incidents of the disease, according to 
the size, position and extent of such bladder. The move- 
ments of the sheep are directed sideways from the direction 
where such bladder is situated, except when the bladder is 
located upon the back' part of the brain ; in such case the 
animal moves with nose erect in a nearly straight line ; and 
if the bladder is located upon the lower part of the brain, 
the animal droops its head as low as possible. When such 
a diseased animal is dissected, one or more of the before- 
mentioned worm-bladders are found in the hollow part of 
the skull. This bladder consists of a thin, closely-con- 
structed membrane, filled with clear, light, yellowish, watery 
fluid, in which a large number — often several hundred — of 
small white corpuscles are observed, which appear to the 
naked eye like poppy-seed ; when such a bladder and its cor- 
puscles are examined by means of a magnifying glass, the 
latter are found to consist of live animals of an oblong, 



66 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

wrinkled form, the head being provided with four suckers and 
a double row of hooks. These animals are so connected with 
the bladder that the latter appear to be the general body 
of the former, and the animals themselves extending their 
heads and necks upon the base of the bladder, and attach- 
ing their sucking apparatus to the brain of the animal, by 
which means the sap of the brain is absorbed to such an ex- 
tent that the brain of a dissected animal is often found to 
be hardened yellow matter. When the bladder is situated 
upon the surface of the skin, it is to be found under the 
skull-bone and under the hard skin covering the brain ; the 
growth of the bladder causes a pressure of the bone, by 
which means the bone becomes softened and thinned, some- 
times to such a degree that the bladder is only covered with 
a skin, whereby the diseased spots may be easily detected. 
Mostly, however, the bladder is found in the brain, and 
seldom in other parts. Sometimes a large number of worm- 
bladders may be found upon the same animal. In the be- 
ginning of small size, the bladder increases considerably, 
sometimes to the size of a hen's egg, and even larger. 
There is no doubt that the worm-bladder is the immediate 
cause of vertigo, as a consequence of the pressure of a 
foreign body upon a most tender organ of the body. The 
cause of the formation of the bladder is, however, still un- 
known. One of the most celebrated and experienced prac- 
titioners has published an essay containing very valuable 
observations in regard to the formation and origin of said 
disease, from which we give the following : 

In almost every case an inflammation of the brain pre- 
cedes the formation of the worm-bladder and the disease of 
vertigo, the strongest and healthiest lambs being mostly 
subject to the same. The animal is sullen, without appetite 
and affected with constipation, the other symptoms being 
the same as in regular inflammation of the brain ; there 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. . 67 

may be less fever, but the eyes are very red. This disease 
in some cases may disappear in two days, and without 
being at all observed If the inflammation is not too ve- 
hement, a cure will take place of its own will and without 
any artificial assistance, the animal appearing perfectly 
sound until, after a certain time, many of these animals 
become afflicted with vertigo. The proper origin of the 
worm-bladder is as little known as the original formation 
of the worms found in the abdomen. In one case it was 
observed that from two hundred lambs which had during 
the first summer become afflicted with inflammation of the 
brain, one hundred and sixty were attacked during the fol- 
lowing winter by vertigo. Another case is reported in 
which under similar circumstances two hundred out of four 
hundred sheep died of vertigo. From the above-mentioned 
and numerous other circumstances, it is evident that vertigo 
is mostly if not always caused by a former inflammation of 
the brain, and therefore it is important to investigate the 
cause of this latter disease. Such cause consists principally 
in overfeeding the bearing ewes and lambs during winter, 
by which means a plethoric condition of the animal is pro- 
duced, which during a hot temperature may lead to inflam- 
mation of the brain. A large number of lambs are often 
during summer attacked by inflammation of the brain in 
consequence of a sudden change from meagre to abundant 
feeding, especially when the herd is allowed to roam and 
feed upon stubble-grass after having been kept on close diet. 
Kuers relates a case in which a herd of four hundred 
lambs, which had been driven upon an abundant clover 
stubble-field, were after three days attacked by inflamma- 
tion of the brain, of which number two hundred died of 
vertigo during the next winter. Consequently, overfeed- 
ing or a sudden change of diet and temperature produces 
the first cause of inflammation of the brain, and subse- 



68 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

quently vertigo itself, which may he avoided or prevented 
by a careful prevention of such injurious causes and influ- 
ences. It is therefore advisable to keep the lambs during 
midsummer in cool and airy stables, to feed them with 
good green fodder, and furnish them from time to time with 
a lick of saltpetre, glauber salts and rock salt. In case of 
inflammation of the brain, large portions of salt must be 
given ; the animal must be bled, taking about half a pint 
of blood ; a seton may also be applied upon the neck. 

In case of vertigo in its developed state, and when the 
worm-bladder is fully formed, there is no use in a general 
or local treatment of the disease, except the emptying of 
the bladder by means of a mechanical operation. This 
may be done by an incision with a small trocar or sharp- 
pointed instrument, when the incised spot must be turned 
in such a direction that the water may flow from the blad- 
der. Such an operation produces sometimes an effectual 
cure, but often results in the death of the animal, by pro- 
ducing suppuration of the brain. Sometimes the bladder 
may be removed through the opening by means of pincers 
or a pin : if this is impossible, the skin of the bladder may 
remain upon the brain without any apparent harm. All 
other kinds of operations are without effect, except perhaps 
the burning of the bladder by means of a heated iron, 
which, however, is of no better effect than the before-men- 
tioned operations. Other exterior remedies are without 
avail, even the application of muriatic acetate of zinc, 
which was formerly a great favorite with practitioners. In 
most cases it is advisable to kill the diseased animal before 
the same is exhausted from sickness, the flesh of such aiu- 
mal being then as good as that of a healthy one. 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 69 



ITCH OR SCAB IN SHEER 

This is a disease known in all parts of the world from 
time immemorial, and was formerly much feared on account 
of its very extensive devastations among sheep. In the 
present time this fear is removed by the experience and 
knowledge that the disease can be cured in nearly every 
instance. 

The detection of this disease is not difficult. If upon 
examination of the fleece places are found where the wool 
rises above the surface of the fleece, and if the sheep re- 
peatedly gnaws at such spots or rubs the same against other 
objects, it may be taken for granted that itch is prevalent. 
Upon examination of such diseased spots the skin is found 
to be discolored, of a greenish-yellow, and sometimes a 
little reddened ; the skin is thickened and covered with a 
clear moisture. When the skin of such a part is squeezed, 
the animal will show signs of pain, and upon scratching the 
spot with the finger the sheep appears to be comforted. 
The wool upon and near such diseased spot drops off* or 
can be easily removed. In some cases small knots or bub- 
bles of the size of millet-seed may be found upon or near 
these spots, which contain a clear, adhesive fluid, which lat- 
ter partly moistens the skin and partly dries in the form of 
a thin scab, enlarging and extending and adhering strongly 
to the skin. The skin under the scab is hard, pale, thick 
and uneven, cracked and rough. The animal is afflicted 
with vehement itching, and constantly tries to rub the dis- 
eased parts by all means. This rubbing causes the wool, 
which is full of moisture, to become a felty mass, and at 
last to drop off. The scab or itch generally appears upon 
the back, on the side of the shoulders and belly and upon 
the buttocks. The head, legSj genitals and the lower part 



70 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

of the belly are very seldojn afflicted with itch, and then 
only in a very advanced stage of the disease. The itch 
always begins upon a small spot, and extends from time to 
time until the entire surface of the body is affected and the 
wool removed therefrom ; such a general spreading of the 
disease advances very slowly, and often requires from four 
to eight months. In hot stables and during summer-time 
the disease spreads in a short time ; in cold weather the 
progress is very slow. Although the disease in itself is not 
of a dangerous nature, death 'will surely result from its 
long continuance. The animal grows lean, notwithstand- 
ing a good appetite ; the skin is entirely deprived of wool, 
covered with a discolored, nauseous and suppurated mois- 
ture and overloaded with a thick scab. Dropsy, pulmo- 
nary disease, lingering fever, etc., ensue, which finally re- 
sult in death ; when the animal has been well fed during 
the disease, the last-mentioned consequences may take place 
after one or two years. 

There are two causes of this disease : it may originate in 
itself or from infection. The first cause is said to be a con- 
sequence of constant exposure to wet or rain, especially in 
summer, of want of good feeding, and of different morbid 
conditions of the animal. In most cases, however, infection 
forms the first cause of the disease. When the diseased 
skin of a scabby animal is examined, either with the naked 
eye or by means of a magnifying glass, numerous small in- 
sects, the so-called scab-mites (very similar to the scab- 
mites of the horse) may be detected. The transfer of each 
mite from scabby to healthy sheep forms the only and ex- 
clusive cause of infection, after which the disease is regu- 
larly formed in a period of from ten to sixteen days, there 
being no indication of infection before the seventh day ; on 
the seventh or eighth day the mite itself may be detected 
upon the skin of the infected animal ; from the ninth to 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 71 

tlie twelfth day several small spots of a yellowisli-red color, 
and al^o a certain thickening of the skin, become per- 
ceptible, after which a greater or smaller number of knots 
or bubbles are formed, containing the above-mentioned 
moisture and producing the scab. After this time the dis- 
ease takes its regular course. Infection follows sooner or 
later, according to circumstances. When a scabby sheep is 
left among a healthy herd for twelve to twenty -four hours, 
several of these healthy animals will be most surely in- 
fected, which infection or transfer of the mites is done 
either by immediate contact of the healthy with the dis- 
eased animal or with other immediate objects, as, for in- 
stance, when a diseased animal rubs against a fence-post, 
and shortly afterward a healthy animal, by rubbing against 
the same post, thereby receives the mites dropped or left 
by the diseased animal upon the post, such mites retaining 
their vital and infective power for two or three weeks, ex- 
cept in a very cold temperature. The disease spreads with 
great rapidity, especially in warm, wet and sultry weather, 
and when sheep are kept closely together in stables. Cold 
and wintry weather, large, free and extensive pastures, 
cause, a considerable delay of the disease. It always re- 
quires several months before the larger part of the herd 
become infected. The further propagation of itch upon the 
single animal is generally, if not always, caused by the in- 
crease of mites, which penetrate and deposit their eggs 
under the upper skin, by which means other generations of 
mites are produced in a very short period. During warm 
weather, and especially during sunshine, the mites may 
be found in innumerable quantities upon the skin ; during 
cold weather and rain they retire into their abode in the 
canals under the skin. In some cases sheep itch may be 
transferred to man, producing a similar scab, but not of 
such dangerous consequences as genuine human itch : such 



72 DISEASES O:^' SHEEP. 

cases are, however, of very rare occurrence. It is further 
stated that this disease may be also transferred to other do- 
mestic animals, as, for instance, the dogs of the shepherd, 
but this statement is not sufficiently corroborated. The 
skin is sometimes in certain conditions where the prevalence 
of itch may be suspected, but where it does not exist, as 
in cases where the fleece is uneven or losing parts of its 
wool. A close examination of such spots will remove all 
doubt, the healthy skin being of a natural color and ap- 
pearance, soft, elastic and free from moisture, and the ani- 
mal shows no signs of uneasiness or itching. Such falling 
out of wool happens often in spring or in the beginning of 
summer, and is generally found in weak animals. This 
disease (itch) must also not be confounded with mouth 
scab, which only aifects the lips or face of young sheep, 
whereas itch never affects the face, and befalls old and young. 
Sometimes the sheep scratches and gnaws in consequence 
of lice, which may be easily detected upon examination. 
Upon some spots between the wool and skin a great 
amount of fatty moisture or sweat is often found, which 
must not be confounded with the moisture of itch. In 
case of doubt the wool must be clipped oiF from, such 
places and the skin examined. Sometimes sheep are 
afflicted with a tetter-like eruption ; this eruption aifects, 
however, only small parts, entirely loosening the wool in a 
very short time, and causing very little or no itching. No- 
body who has had any experience will confound the pox 
with itch, and it is therefore only necessary to observe the 
following: Pox, unlike itch, is mostly found upon the 
bare parts of the skin, between the legs and upon the face, 
and commences with fever, taking its regular course, there 
being no itching and scarcely any similarity to itch disease. 
When there is a vehement itching, a formation of scurf and 
an eruption, followed with loosening of wool, it may be 



DISEASES OP SIIEEPe 73 

taken for granted that itch disease is prevalent, and all 
further doubts are removed by the appearance of mites 
upon the diseased skin ; it must, however, be stated that 
itch disease may prevail without any mites being observed. 
Like the itch of all domestic animals, this disease presents 
no danger to sheep ; it is not, as formerly generally believed, 
the result of a particular acrid or corrupt condition of the 
humors, being nothing else than a local disease of the skin, 
which may become dangerous and deadly only in conse- 
quence of long duration or accidentally. Notwithstanding 
this, the disease is of a very disagreeable and obnoxious 
character if it is permitted to affect a large part of the 
herd. Its cure is a matter of some difficulty, and the dis- 
ease costs a large amount of fodder and trouble, loss of 
wool and a partial destruction of the fleece, which latter is 
caused by the application of remedies. When the animal 
is at the same time afflicted with other diseases, or emaciated 
in consequence of eruptions, the result of the cure may be- 
come doubtful, and depends upon the general constitution 
of the animal. There is, however, no doubt that sheep 
itch may be effectually cured during all times of the life 
of the animal in case of prompt attention. There is no 
prevention of the disease ( in the general application of 
said word) either by medical or other means, and all so- 
called preventive remedies consist in a proper attention to 
and diet of the animals, or in their separation from others 
affected with itch. The cure only requires a local treat- 
ment and external remedies. In case the affected sheep is 
emaciated and weak, a lick composed of sulphur, juniper- 
berries, calamus-root, tar, turpentine and bran may be given 
in suitable portions with good results ; and in case of rot 
or other diseases, other remedies suitable for the same may 
be also applied. The cure of itch is either palliative or 
radical. In a case where only a few animals of a herd are 
7 D 



74 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

afflicted witli itch, the further spreading naay be sometimes 
prevented by separating the diseased animals from the 
henUhy in such a manner that such separation is to be re- 
peated for weeks, as long as any infected animals are found. 
Such a remedy is, however, seldom of avail, inasmuch as a 
considerable part of the herd may be aifected without any 
possible detection. This palliative cure, being still in some 
cases of benefit, may therefore be recommended. Of un- 
doubted success, an*d therefore in nearly in all cases advisa- 
ble, is the radical or simultaneous treatment of the whole 
herd. Formerly such a cure was seldom attended with 
favorable results, notwithstanding the employment of a 
great many diiFerent remedies. At the present time, how- 
ever, the best results have been obtained, and itch disease 
may in most cases be considered as of little importance. 
Its cure may be warranted, provided the animal is not at 
the same time affected with another disease. The remedies 
of former times consist mostly of ointments composed of 
sulphur, turpentine, tar, quicksilver, etc. Although such 
remedies may be suitable in their proper form, their em- 
ployment as ointments is not to be recommended, the cure 
being troublesome, expensive and tedious, it being almost 
impossible to apply such ointment to every diseased spot 
under the close-grown wool, which is of the greatest im- 
portance. For this reason ointments may be applied for 
months without, entirely abating the disease. At the pres- 
ent time it is generally understood that tlie proper cure of 
itch consists in washing and bathing the affected animals, 
by which means the entire skin is supplied with the proper 
remedy without searching for the diseased spots. The com- 
position of such washes or baths differs according to the 
opinion of the practitioner, the most celebrated composition 
being that of Surgeon Walz, which, however, I have re- 
peatedly tried without any satisfactory result, it being too 



DISEASES OF SmXP. to 

weak and not in all cases effieieot. The best wash or bath 
that I have applied during twenty years with the most 
saU£lactory resiilts consists of the following : Sis pounds of 
burnt, unslaeked lime must be slacked by sprinkling water 
upon it in a proper vesel, to which six pounds of potash 
and ten quarts of water are to be added : this mixture 
must be boiled and well stirred for about an hour. When 
this lye has been boiled suSeiently, eight pounds of pine 
oil and two quarts of tar must be added and well stirred 
into the same. In another and larger vessel twenty poumls 
of tobacco-leaves must be boOed in one hundred and thirty 
qu:Lr:< of water for two or three hours, after which this de- 
.v::.'n is to be thrown into a large tub (^the tobacco-leaves* 
are thrown away as worthle:ss). To this decoction the 
above-describevl lye is to be added, and both must be well 
stirred and mixeil together. The remedy is then ready, 
the quantity being su^eient for one hundred sheep. It 
must be applied in the foUowing manner : The sheep must 
be laid sideways upon a board of saifieient size, one assist- 
ant holding all four \eg^ of the animal, another assistant 
pressing its head down and parting the wool lengthwise 
6om the ear to the upper part of the hind leg, the parting 
line remaining about three or four inches distant along the 
middle of the back. Another assistant applies the lye or 
wash vwhieh must be of a temperature of about 110^ or 
120^ Fahr^iheit, or warm enough to su£fer the hand to 
touch the same) by means of a sponge or bottle along the 
parting liue, so that the fluid will flow uito the separated 
fleece. The animal must then be turned over and the lye 
applied in the same manner upon the other side. After this 
the animal must be put upon its feet, the wool parted 
straight along the middle of the back, beginning at the 
neck and ending at the tail. A quart of lye is sufficient 
for each unshorn sheep. The part of the sk va covered with 



76 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

scurf is to be cleaned by means of a dull knife or by the 
finger nails, and separately supplied with said lye. As the 
wash or bath adheres to the skin in a uniform manner, 
there is no necessity of further rubbing the same into the 
fleece. In case the disease is of an obstinate character, the 
remedy must be applied again in the same manner in about 
eight or ten days, whereby a greater security against further 
damage is obtained. Such a treatment requires very little 
time; from five hundred to six hundred animals can be 
washed in one of the shortest winter days. The lye should 
be kept sufiiciently warm during the operation. This lye 
recommends itself not only by its efficiency, but also by its 
cheapness, the outlay being very small in comparison with 
the value of its benefits. 

Finally, a very important matter has to be stated — ^that 
is, the prevention of a new infection of the herd. Such a 
re-infection has to be guarded against with the utmost care, 
it being a well-known fact that the best remedies may be- 
come unavailable if such proper care is not taken. It is 
therefore advisable to keep the infected animals in their 
usual place until a repeated application of the remedy has 
been followed by a thorough cure of the herd. After the 
effectual application of the last bath, the animal must be 
taken to another locality, to allow of the disinfection of the 
original place, which is to be done by the removal of the 
dung and by whitewashing the stable and all its fixtures 
with a mixture of lime-water and chloride of lime (mixing 
one pound of chloride of lime with a pailful of lime-water). 
The cured animals must always be kept separate from the 
infected animals. 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 77 

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 

This disease is in most cases caused by colds, wliich may 
happen to the animals in different ay ays, especially shortly 
after shearing during rainy and cold weather, also v.hen the 
animals are suddenly exposed to a cold shower during hot 
weather and after being driven a long distance. Some- 
times inflammation of the lungs is the consequence of a 
vehement catarrh or influenza, whereby in the beginning a 
discharge from the nose and eyes may be observed. When 
pox is of a virulent form or improperly treated, the lungs 
may also become inflamed, showing the incidents of the so- 
called pulmonary disease. (The article on " Pox" contains 
a full description of these incidents.) After death, water 
is often found in the cavity of the breast, or the lungs ap- 
pear of a very dark color, very hard and filled with knots. 
Exudations of fibrous matter upon the surface of the 
lungs or upon the pleura occur very seldom. The cure 
must not be delayed or death will follow in a short time. 
The diseased animals must be bled, taking from a quarter 
to a half pound of blood, according to the age of the animal. 
At the same time a solution comjDosed of saltpetre (from one 
half to one drachm), glauber salts (one ounce), or, instead 
of this, one ounce of tartar, mixed with half a pint of water, 
must be administrated with great care until the animal is 
relieved of soft dung. In case the animal is of great value, 
and its recovery very desirable, the sides of the breast must 
be rubbed with an irritant mixture composed of aqua-am- 
monia, oil of olive, cantharides and tincture of opium, 
taking one-half ounce of each. Before applying this 
remedy it is necessary to remove the wool from the proper 
place to the extent of about five or six inches in diameter. 
In case a frequent cough or discharge from the nose is ob- 
served, or when the disease originates from a very vehement 

7 « 



78 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

influenza, the bleeding of the animal is unnecessary, and 
instead of the above-mentioned infusion the following in- 
fusion may be given : sal-ammoniac, one ounce ; tartar 
emetic, one drachm; fennel-seed and juniper-berries, two 
ounces each — to be mixed with honey and water, and the 
mixture to be given from four to six times a day, the 
whole quantity being sufficient for two days. Instead of 
the application of the above-mentioned irritant, a fontanel 
may be also applied in such case. In case the inflam- 
mation of the lungs is caused by pox, there is scarcely any 
remedy that can be successfully applied. During the treat- 
ment the animal must be kept in the stable, the food con- 
sisting of green fodder and the drink of clear water, which 
may be mixed with flour or linseed-cake, as much as the 
animal may take. 



MALIGNANT FOOT EOT. 

The malignant foot rot, distemper, Spanish foot rot, or 
French distemper, was unknown in Germany until the 
year 1816 or 1817, and seems to have been introduced with 
the importation of noble merino herds from France. Several 
of these herds, especially in Saxony and Prussia, which were 
aflected with the epidemic soon after their arrival or even 
during their transportation, were lost entirely ; for at that 
time nothing was known about the nature, contagion or 
cure of the disease. Fortunately this state of affairs, as 
will soon be evident, has changed. 

At the breaking out of the disease, single sheep were 
carefully observed from the beginning, and the following 
phenomena occurred : generally only one foot is attacked 
at first, or only one claw, and the disease spreads, according 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 79 

•to circumstauces, over the whole foot, and sometimes, though 
rarely, over all four. 

A few days after infection the naked skin in the cleft of 
the hoof appears somewhat redder and warmer than in its 
normal condition. On the inner side of the affected claw, 
where the upper edge of the horny shoe unites with the 
skin of the fleshy crown at the balls, forming the so-called 
seam or suture of the hoof, an aqueous, badly-smelling 
liquid exudes, and the skin separates at the suture. If 
the affected claw is pressed with the hand at the ball, the 
sheep shows by a convulsive jerk with the foot that it suffers 
pain. The ball at the diseased side is somewhat swollen 
and hot, and the animal is but little lame during the first 
six or eight days. 

As the disease advances, the inner horny wall separates 
more and more from the hoof-bone, and the secretion, which 
was clear before, now^ becomes more copious, thicker and 
dark. It flows downward behind the horny wall toward 
the sole of the hoof, and destroys all connection of the 
inner side of the horny capsule with the foot, so that the 
former falls off. 

The secretion is very corrosive, and attacks not unfre- 
queutly the ligaments, tendons and even the bones, es- 
pecially the hoof-bone, w^hich it destroys to a greater or less 
extent. It is frequently mixed with blood, flocnles of morti- 
fied cellular tissue, etc., and always smells badly. AVhile 
these changes occur within, the external surface of the horny 
capsule becomes finable, cracked, very long and misshapen, 
and is covered with rings and knots. The toe turns up- 
ward, and the outer wall is folded inward and under the 
sole. 

After the capsule has fallen off, a new one is formed, and 
this is repeated several times, but the new claw is always 
more or less deformed and cri2:)pled. 



80 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

The cleft is opened more widely than usual, the foot is' 
swollen and the claws stand further apart, so that the dis- 
eased animal can be recognized by its larger footprints in 
the snow or in soft ground. 

At first the sheep is but little lame, but if the separation 
of the horny shoe and the downward tendency of the secre- 
tion have advanced, considerable lameness becomes evident, 
and the animal suffers much pain. It steps but little on 
the lame foot, and if both fore feet are affected, it slides 
along on its knees while eating, and lies down almost con- 
stantly during the rest of the time. This condition may 
last several months, and the animal nevertheless may ap- 
pear healthy, eat, chew the cud and be in good spirits. 
There is no fever, and the sheep loses no flesh while re- 
maining in the stable, if it receives good food. Finally, 
however, — especially if both feet be attacked, — the animal 
loses flesh on account of the exceedingly great pain, ceases 
to chew the cud, the appetite diminishes, an insidious fever 
sets in, and after half a year or a year, when the animal 
has wasted down to a mere skeleton, it dies from suffering 
and exhaustion. 

The preceding is a picture of the disease in single animals. 
Its course as an epidemic or plague among a flock will be 
described directly. 

Foot rot is very highly contagious, as has been deter- 
mined wdth certainty by numerous observations and experi- 
ments, made by inoculating the secretion. The disease 
appears to be peculiar to the Spanish merinos, which are 
exported to other countries. It seems to have been intro- 
duced into the United States a number of years ago by 
Spanish merinos, when I had an opportunity to apply my 
treatment with good success. It has not been ascertained 
wdiether the cause of the malady lies in the transportation 
of the herds to distant parts or in the change of climate. 



DISEASES OF SHEEP, 81 

It is strange that in Spain, the native countiy of the 
merino, the epidemic does not occur — a circumstance ^Yhich 
cannot easily be explained by the difference of the climate. 
Many, and among them high authorities, incline to the 
opinion that the origin of the disease is not to be sought in 
foreign sheep of noble race, but that the true malignant 
epidemic may a>'ise spontaneously and spread by contagion. 
This point, however, still remains in doubt among prac- 
titioners. 

Foot rot is most frequent in merinos, less so in half-breed, 
and least in common country sheep. Nevertheless, the 
latter do not enjoy entire immunity from it, as observation 
has shown ; and the same holds true of the lambs of all 
races. The more common kinds are less liable, because 
their wool, skin and hoofs are of coarser texture, while the 
more delicate build of the merino is not so well fitted to 
resist the disease. 

If the disease break out in a flock, only a few sheep (or 
perhaps only a single one) may be attacked at first, and 
these impart it to thej*est. Generally but one claw is at- 
tacked at first, and the disease then spreads to the next on 
account of its close proximity. 

After breaking out, the epidemic spreads under all cir- 
cumstances, in every season and weather, and cannot be 
prevented by the greatest care and attention until the 
greater part of the flock have fallen a prey to it, unless a 
separation or a cure is eflected. 

Its progress is always so slow that in large flocks years 
may elapse before all the sheep are infected. The conta- 
gion is facilitated by wet summers or other causes which 
tend to soften the claw^s, as heat and moisture combined, or 
when the sheep stand closely together on warm dung in a 
stable. Cold and turning out to pasture during dry w^eather 
retard the progress of the epidemic. 

D* 



82 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

Formerly very erroneous views prevailed concerning the 
causes and true seat of the foot rot, and it was reserved for 
the present time to shed more light on the subject. Some 
believed a worm to be the cause, which took up its abode in 
the bag or gland of the hoof. This error was caused in the 
following way : In the upper, anterior portion of the cleft 
there is an orifice leading to a tube closed at one end, which 
is formed by a convolution of the external skin. The inner 
surface is without hair and is covered with glands, secreting 
a tallow-like substance, which collects there in masses. • If 
this tube or bag is pressed with the fingers, the above sub- 
stance is squeezed out, and naturally assumes a curved shape, 
which was erroneously considered as a worm and as the 
cause of the epidemic. It is true that the bag may become 
inflamed, and produce a malady of the hoof, but it will 
never cause the malignant distemper of the foot. The in- 
flammation of the cleft, which sometimes occurs, must not 
be confounded with the epidemic, because it is not conta- 
gious and does not attack the horny capsule. In order to 
avoid mistakes, the breeder should distinguish betw^een the 
mild and the malignant forms. For this reason I will 
enumerate the essential symptoms : 

Malignant Foot Rot. — 1. At first, secretion of an 
acrid, very ofi^ensive liquid over the inner suture, without 
much swelling. 

2. Formation of a briny liquid in the hoof; the hoof 
becomes deformed and falls ofl^; the tendons, ligaments and 
bones are attacked. 

3. Lameness after ten or fourteen days, when the sheep 
will slide along on its knees and belly. 

4. There is no fever ; the disease is very slow, attacks at 
first only one claw, then spreading over several, and con- 
tinuing for months. 

5. It is always caused by contagion, spreads very slowly 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 83 

in a flock, never disappears spontaneously, and may attack 
the same sheep several times. 

6. The spreading of the disease may be prevented by 
strict separation. It is only accidentally that more than 
one animal is attacked at the same time. 

7. Its seat is solely in the capsule of the claw. 

The mild form. — 1. At first considerable inflamma- 
tion, heat and swelling around the crown of the hoof. 
Blisters are formed, containing a clear liquid, which is 
neither acrid nor offensive. 

2. It never or very rarely attacks the inner parts of the 
hoof, or causes it to fall off. 

3. Lameness is caused as soon as the disease breaks out, 
and is but slight. - 

4. Fever is present, and the malady terminates in twelve 
or eighteen days. It generally attacks several claws at 
once, and does not spread afterward. 

5. It is caused by unknown or general influences" of the 
weather, attacks a whole flock in a very short time, disap- 
pears spontaneously or after applying simple remedies, and 
does not attack the same sheep more that once. 

6. It cannot be prevented, because the cause lies in the 
atmosphere. Cattle and hogs suflTer at the same time, and 
it spreads simultaneously over whole districts. 

7. It aflfects only the parts above the capsule of the hoof, 
and rarely ever, or only accidentally, attacks the latter. 

The question, Is foot rot a dangerous disease ? cannot be 
directly answered, because everything depends on circum- 
stances, and especially on the treatment. Experience has 
more than sufficiently proved that it may become destruc- 
tive, since whole flocks have fallen prey to its ravages. 
Again, the malady may be said to be entirely Vvdthout dan- 
ger, because its spread may be prevented by separating the 



84 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

sick animals from the flock, and even these can be cirred 
radically, surely and easily. I know of a case where five 
large flocks were attacked simultaneously, and where the 
epidemic was present for two years. Although all proper 
remedies were tried, the disease w^ould not yield, because a 
careful separation of the sick animals was not efi'ected. 
Some sheep lost much flesh and wool, and the disease seemed 
to be of a dangerous character. I was summoned to cure 
it, and it disappeared in five or six weeks, which I do not 
consider a great achievement. The disease rarely, if ever, 
disappears spontaneously, but it will nearly always yield to 
a proper treatment, and by this the danger or want of dan- 
ger may be judged. 

Let us now consider the cure of the disease. If the foot 
rot has broken out among a flock of sheep, it is of the ut- 
most im.portance to separate the healthy sheep from the 
sick, in order to prevent as mxUch as possible the spread of 
the disease. All sheep w^hich are lame, and in which the 
disease is unmistakably present, should be removed. 

Experience has made us acquainted with a large number 
of remedies, by means of which foot rot may be cured. 
The reputation which any one of them may have acquired 
above the others seems to be based more on the manner of 
its application than on its superior curative properties. 
The medicine is of secondary importance, the chief point 
being the surgical, manual operation. It must nevertheless 
be remarked that all remedies are not of equal value. 
Foot rot has often been cured by the application of dif- 
ferent acids and caustics ; as, for example, nitric acid 
(aquafortis), sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), pyroligneous 
acid (wood-vinegar), butter of antimony, burnt alum, lunar 
caustic, vitriol, hartshorn oil, etc. ; but the most of these 
remedies cannot be recommended, because they needlessly 
increase the inflammation which may be present, and 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 85 

thereby the pain, retard the cure, and are expensive and 
difficult to apply. 

The only aim of the treatment being to lay bare the 
diseased, suppurating surfaces, and to destroy the infectious 
matter on them, the remedy which accomplishes this with 
the least possible disagreeable secondary effects is evidently 
the best. 

For this purpose chloride of lime (bleaching salt) is 
without exception the best, because it destroys the infectious 
matter of the foot rot, like all other animal contagions, 
in a wonderfully rapid and certain manner. The latest 
experience in the use of chloride of lime places it at the 
head of all remedies against the disease. I myself cured 
nine large flocks in different places so rapidly and easily by 
its use that I was surprised, as no other remedy had before 
afforded me such good results. 

Giinther, the vice-director of the Hanover School for 
Veterinary Science, has made known an excellent way of 
curing a flock suffering from foot rot by means of chloride 
of lime, and I will describe the essential points of his 
method here : 

After removing all the sick sheep from the flock, it is 
possible and even probable that some of the remaining ones 
are already infected, although they do not show the disease, 
and that some of the virus adheres to their hoofs. This 
virus is destroyed by chlori,de of lime in the following way : 
A crib or long trough is filled to the height of six inches 
with cold water, into which one pound of chloride of lime 
is poured for every pail of water. A hurdle is then made 
of the crib by fencing in the sides, and the suspected sheep 
are forced to go through the water in it, which can easily 
be done. The virus which may cling to the hoofs, and 
which has not yet had time to act, is destroyed in this way. 
If the hoofs of the sheep are very dirty, they should first 
8 



86 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

be driven through water or dry straw. They are then 
turned out to pasture, which must be as dry as possible, rich 
in grass and not too distant. They should have a separate 
shepherd, who does not come in contact with the sick ani- 
mals. If possible they should be kept in the open air, far 
enough away from the others. The flock should be in-' 
spected every third day, and if a sick sheep is found it 
should be immediately put with the other patients. If the 
sheep must be kept in the stable, as in winter or in bad 
weather, an inspection should also take place every three 
days, and new patients removed. The chaff, etc., on the 
stable floor should also be renewed. If the trouble is not 
considered too great, the above foot-bath may be repeated 
every week if there are new cases of the disease. 

The sick sheep are treated as follows : It is important to 
remove immediately all separated and loose horn with a 
narrow, sharp knife; for it is evident that the remedy, 
which is to destroy the virus and cure the disease, cannot 
act as long as the suppurating surfaces are covered. This 
cutting is therefore the principal thing, and the success of 
the treatment depends on the complete and proper perform- 
ance of the operation. Th6 bad repute into which some 
remedies have fallen is due in a great measure to the 
method of their application. It is almost unimportant of 
what the remedy consists, and it might be composed simply 
of vinegar or salt and water. 

The operator sits down on a bundle of straw, after an 
assistant has turned the sheep on its back, and opens the 
cleft of the hoof. He then begins at the suture and cuts 
out all horn which has separated from the foot and is suf- 
fused with matter. The inner sides of the horny capsule 
deserve special attention, as do also the parts where the 
horn appears whiter and softer than on the other parts of 
the hoof. The knife must be freely used, and all loose horn 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 87 

removed up to the point where the connection remains un- 
impaired. The bleeding which may occur is wholly with- 
out danger. 

A knowledge of the anatomy of the sheep's hoof will 
prevent the abuse of the knife. It is proper in all cases to 
pare down the sick hoof considerably at the toe and ex- 
ternal wall, because it can then be more easily examined, 
and it does not touch the ground so forcibly when the 
animal is walking as when it is larger than the healthy 
cue. The knife must be cleaned from time to time, so 
that the matter adhering to. it does not infect the healthy 
parts. 

If the disease is further advanced, and the secretion has 
collected far down in the hoof, the same operation is per- 
formed ; and it will sometimes be necessary to remove the 
whole capsule. Every hidden channel which may be 
present should be sounded, opened and laid bare. If the 
wound becomes covered with blood during the operation, 
as is commonly the case, it should be frequently dried with 
tow. If a single diseased place remain from which the 
horn is not removed, a cure cannot be expected. After 
cutting away the whole or a part of the horny capsule, it is 
always necessary to apply a bandage to protect the hoof 
from dangerous external irritation. After applying chloride 
of lime to the surfaces as above, the cleft is filled with tow 
whose ends are twisted into a small cord and fastened 
around the pastern-joint. This forms a soft and tightly- 
fitting bandage.- 

The diseased hoofs are inspected daily, covered with 
chloride of lime, and bandaged anew if necessary. If a 
diseased spot is discovered which escaped notice before, the 
knife must be applied, and not unfrequently a portion of 
the newly-formed horn again removed. Generally two or 
three applications are sufiicient for a cure. The pain and 



88 DISEASES OF SHEEI>. 

r 

lameness disappear very soon, and diminish even after the 
first few days. The surface of the wound becomes dry and 
is covered Avith a thin skin, which becomes whiter, thicker 
and more compact every day, and forms the new horn. 
The disagreeable smell disappears almost immediately after 
the application of the chloride of lime. If this is not the 
case, if the sheep is very lame and the surface of the wound 
moist, it may be taken for granted that there is a hollow 
sore in the capsule which before escaped notice. This must 
be found and cut. 

If sinews, ligaments and bones are attacked, everything 
that is corroded must be removed with the knife. Chloride 
of lime is then applied for two consecutive days, and the 
wound bandaged with tow. Afterward the surfaces of the 
wound and all the diseased parts are moistened with a mix- 
ture of one part creosote and four parts alcohol. A bandage 
of tow is then applied, and kept on until an improvement 
is visible. If the joint is attacked, the lower end of the 
hoof (generally the hoof-bone) is amputated, and creosote, 
etc., then applied. The operation requires skill, but is 
without disadvantage, because the sheep can walk almost 
as well on one hoof as on two. 

Since foot rot is a purely local disease, a general treat- 
ment and internal remedies are wholly useless and should 
be dispensed with. Good and copious food, and perhaps 
from time to time salt-licks mixed with wormwood, oil of 
turpentine, tar, etc., are recommended. 

If the disease is to be rapidly and thoroughly cured, it 
is very important to avoid all chances of a new infection. 
The dung of an infected stable, the pieces of horn removed 
from diseased hoofs by cutting, old bandages, etc., should 
be carefully removed or burnt up. 

If a dry, rich pasture-ground is near, the patients may 
be taken there. It is, however, better and more convenient 



DISEASES or SHEEP. 89 

to keep tliem in the stable. If no other but the infected 
one is at hand, it must be previously cleaned very carefully. 
The dung should be removed and buried, or ploughed 
down deeply. Cribs, mangers, stands, etc., are covered 
with whitewash containing one pound of chloride of lime 
for every pail. It is well to have a different keeper for the 
sick animals, to prevent infection of the healthy ones from 
the virus, which might adhere to his shoes. 

When the lameness has disappeared, when new and tol- 
erably firm horn has formed on the wound, and when the 
latter is dry and firmly united with the flesh, the sheep is 
removed from the sick flock. Since, however, it is not yet 
safe to return it to the healthy ones, it should be considered 
convalescent, and separated for at least two or three weeks 
from both the sick and the healthy flocks. It must be fre- 
quently examined, and finally made to walk through 
chloride of lime water in the way described, before return- 
ing it to the healthy sheep. When the epidemic has disap- 
peared entirely from the flock, the stables, etc., should be 
thoroughly cleansed. 

Xo preventive is known, because the disease arises solely 
from contagion. It commences by attacking a few head at 
•first, and spreads gradually and slowly to the rest. 

If the epidemic has broken out in the neighborhood, 
contagion from coming in contact with other flocks should 
be carefully guarded against. The sheep should be kept 
as far as possible away from such localities, and all com- 
munication among sheep, as well as all contact with the shep- 
herds and dogs, avoided. Infected herds should not be per- 
mitted to pass through places where the disease has not ap- 
peared. After buying sheep, they should be kept isolated 
for one or two weeks, and carefully observed. It is recom- 
mended to keep a sort of quarantine always, even if the 
vicinity is free from the epidemic. 



90 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

THE FLUKE. 

The fluke is a disease of long duration, closely related to 
the rot, and not less destructive. At first it shows no strik- 
ing symptoms, and can be easily recognized only in its more 
advanced stages. The eye of the patient is pale and 
covered with a tough mucus. The animal becomes weaker 
and weaker, loses flesh and its belly swells up. Pressure 
in the region of the liver causes pain. The appetite dim- 
inishes while the thirst increases, and the animal frequently 
licks woodwork, whitewashed walls, the ground, etc. 

The excrement is discharged in large lumps or balls, and 
is sometimes pasty and thin. The progress of the disease 
is almost identical with that of the rot, and the same is 
true of the dead bodies. Water is effused under the skin in 
the different cavities of the body, the fat has disappeared 
entirely, and all parts are pale and flaccid. The most 
important difference between the fluke and the rot is the 
condition of the liver, which in fluke is very friable, bloated 
and twice as heavy as in the healthy state. On the surface it 
is of a pale bluish or lead color and covered with knots or 
water-blisters. The gall-bladder mostly contains an exces- 
sively large quantity of bile. In the gall-bladder and the 
biliary ducts are found large numbers of flat, oval worms, 
which are generally four or five lines broad and an inch 
long. 

Fluke is generally even slower than rot, and the life of 
the patients may be prolonged for several years if the treat- 
ment be good. Nothing certain is yet known concerning 
the cause of fluke. It appears most frequently, like rot, 
in wet years, after poor food, etc. The worms are formed 
spontaneously, like all other worms of the viscera ; and the 
opinion that they are introduced into the body with the 
food, drink, etc., must be considered as erroneous. 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 91 

The prevention and treatment are exactly as in rot, but 
the care is more rarely effected,, because the worms cannot 
be driven out of the liver. In the incipient stages of the 
disease, however, a cure sometimes succeeds ; or, in other 
words, it may be brought to a standstill. This is all that 
is necessary, since a few worms are not injurious. In the 
livers of the most healthy sheep a few worms are frequently 
found. 

The same remedies as for rot may be employed. Worm- 
wood four parts, calamus-root four parts, shining soot from 
the stove two parts, charred bones one part, and a sufficient 
quantity of turpentine or hartshorn oil, are mixed, and of 
this one ounce is given two or three times a week as a lick, 
mixed with salt and bran. 

As a drink, lime-water, or water containing one ounce of 
green vitriol (sulphate of iron) to the pail, is given. 

If the disease be considerably advanced, the sheep should 
be sent to the butcher before it loses its flesh and value. 
No such animals should be used for breeding. 



GNAW DISEASE {Hydrocephcdus hydatidesis). 

This disease appears most frequently in the second year, 
rarely before the sheep is one and a half years old, and 
still more rarely after it has passed the third year. Its 
seat is nearly always in the spinal marrow, especially in 
the croup and loin regions. It manifests itself at first by 
very trifling symptoms, which are easily overlooked. The 
animal shows a slight weakness in the hind quarters, es- 
pecially in the root of the tail, and begins to gnaw at its 
own hind thighs, giving rise to the name, " the gnaw dis- 
ease." The weakness increases graduallv, and with it the 



92 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

irritation of the skin ; the animal takes broader and shorter 
steps with its hind feet, is unable to jump over elevated ob- 
jects or walk easily over high steps, and breaks down in 
the croup if it attempts to jump, so that it will tumble with 
its fore feet, and even fall to the ground. The same takes 
place if the sheep is raised from the ground and allowed to 
drop, and it generally wags its head to and fro. The malady 
augments from week to week, and with it the weakness of the 
hind quarters, which becomes very apparent. The animal 
can no longer gallop, but only trot (hence the name " trot- 
ting disease"). If the sheep is forced to run quickly by a 
dog, it generally falls down, and rises only with difficulty. 

During the course of the disease the patient appears 
stupid, the ears hang down loosely, and the palsy, which at 
first befell only the hind quarters, becomes more general. 
During the first few weeks the appetite remains good and 
the patient- does not lose flesh, but afterward it gradually 
becomes lean, even if the appetite should remain unimpaired, 
and finally death ensues, frequently after several months. 

Most sheep gnaw at their hind quarters, as has been re- 
marked before, but this symptom is not present in every 
case, and therefore not characteristic. The skin at the 
parts which are gnawed is deprived of its wool, and if it 
grow again, it is paler and coarser than before, and loses 
its curl. Frequently the sick animals bite their skin until 
it becomes bloody and a scab is formed on the spot, which 
must not be mistaken for an eruption of the skin or for a 
cause of the irritation and gnawing. 

The disease mostly attacks perfectly healthy, well-fed 
sheep, and appears more frequently in autumn than in any 
other season of the year. Noble races are most liable to its 
ravages, but it has been observed also in very common 
country sheep. Sheep produced by crossing breeds seem 
more predisposed to it than others. Death is the common 






DISEASES OF SHEEP. 93 

termination of the disease. It is sure to ensue when the 
malady is in its advanced stages, but in mild cases recovery 
sometimes takes place. Many sheep gnaw their skin and 
appear somewhat lame in the croup : and after this has 
lasted for several weeks, without other symptoms of disease, 
it disappears of its own accord. Such favorable cases must 
always be considered as exceptions to the rule. The dura- 
tion of the disease, from the first visible symptoms until it 
terminates in death, is generally from two to three months. 
Some, however, die earlier, and others, especially if they 
are well-cared for, much later. On dissection I always 
found a little water in the cavity of the spinal canal, es- 
pecially in the region of the last lumbar and first crucial 
vertebras. I often found the spinal marrow softer, and in 
rare cases harder, than in its normal condition, and a portion 
of it had wasted away. A little water was also generally 
found in the brain, and the other parts were unchanged and 
healthy. Sometimes a worm-blister was found in the spinal 
canal, analogous to that observed in the brain in vertigo, 
but this must be considered as an exceptional symptom. 

The first cause of the disease is not definitely ascertained, 
but recent observations have shed considerable light on the 
subject, so that a certain result may be hoped for. It has 
been discovered that the gnaw disease occurs but rarely in 
years when the vertigo prevails, and vice versa. This cir- 
cumstance leads to the conclusion that a certain analogy 
obtains between these diseases, both as regards their nature 
and causes. An improper method of feeding seems to have 
much to do with them, and the predisposition for the gnaw 
disease is undoubtedly hereditary. A cure of the disease 
in its advanced stages is rarely ever possible, and it is 
therefore best to turn such animals over to the butcher. 
But a prevention is tolerably sure if the following rules be 
observed : 



9i DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

1. Too rich food in winter, particularly grain, should be 
avoided, and the diet should be kept as uniform as possible. 

2. Too rich pastures in summer should also be avoided. 

3. In herds which are kept in a locality favorable to the 
disease animals below the age of two and a half or three 
years should not be used for breeding. 

4. Rams and ewes belonging to flocks in which the dis- 
ease prevails should not be bought. 

5. The breeding of too delicate races should also be 
avoided. 

The following method is said to have proved very suc- 
cessful in preventing the disease : In September, October 
and November the ewes which are to be used for breed- 
ing are physicked every four days, alternately with glau- 
ber salts and ground laurel-leaves. One hundred sheep re-, 
quire two and a half pounds of glauber salts and half a 
pound of laurel-leaves. In December and January they 
were made to take these remedies every week, and they are 
now also given to rams. 



INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. 

Inflammation of the brain is rare in sheep (except in 
lambs), on account of the slight energy in the performance 
of their different functions, and the symptoms are not as vio- 
lent as in most other domestic animals. The patient eats but 
little, or nothing at all, lets its head hang down listlessly,. and 
the head, the ears (which hang down loosely) and the interior 
of the mouth are warmer than usual. The eyes are 
shining and opened widely, the pulse and respiration are 
accelerated, and the breath is warmer than in its healthy 
condition. All visible mucous membranes are bright, red 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 95 

and dry, the gait of the animal is unsteady, and it easily 
stumbles and falls. It sometimes bleats repeatedly, but a 
wild, raving disposition rarely ever appears. The most 
common termination of the disease is death, which ensues 
in a short time. The disease (almost exclusively in lambs, 
however) easily passes into vertigo. The causes are almost 
the same as in the latter disease. In order to cure the dis- 
ease the sheep is kept in a cool place and bled immediately, 
abstracting half a pound of blood. Internally, one-eighth 
ounce of saltpetre and one-half ounce of glauber salts, dis- 
solved in water, are given four or five times a day. This 
is continued until an improvement is visible. Cold water 
is poured on the head of the animal as often as possible, or 
the head is kept cool and moist by other means. If no im- 
provement is seen after several days, two small setons may 
be drawn on the crown of the head, and sufiered to remain 
for two weeks, which prevent the termination in vertigo. 



DIARRHCEA AND DYSENTERY. 

Sometimes a whole flock of grown-up sheep is attacked 
simultaneously by diarrhoea in consequence of a sudden 
change from dry to green food, and for this reason the dis- 
ease prevails most frequently in spring. Like diarrhoea in 
cattle, it is perfectly harmless. In many other cases, how- 
ever, it may become dangerous, and even fatal, if it con- 
tinues for a long time, and especially if any inflammation 
of the bowels sets in. Only dry food should be given, and 
a lick composed of wormwood, horse-chestnuts, oak bark, a 
little pine oil and salt administered from time to time. A 
drink composed of one-seventh of a quart of an infusion of 
juniper-berries, with the addition of one ounce of brandy, 
once a day, is very serviceable. 



96 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

Diarrhoea is particularly dangerous to sucklings, wliich 
perish in great numbers. The disease appears without 
warning, the lamb becomes languid and sad, keeps away 
from the other lambs, stands with bent back or lies down 
frequently. The excrement, which is repeatedly discharged, 
is thin, whitish or greenish, afterward watery and mixed 
with mucus, and finally bloody. The animal ceases to 
suck and eat, but is very thirsty. It bleats frequently, 
evinces signs of pain if pressure is applied to its belly, and 
makes efforts to discharge excrement. The lamb rapidly 
loses flesh, its belly sinks in, and death ensues betv/een the 
second and fifth days, and sometimes even on the first day. 
If the body is opened, the runnet-bag especially, and a 
large portion of the intestines, are found to be inflamed. 
The runnet-bag and the intestines, particularly the inflamed 
parts, contain a substance looking like cheese or curdled 
milk. The best sheep are most liable to the disease, but if 
it appear as a plague, all lambs without distinction suffer 
from it. 

The causes are colds of all kinds, especially from the in- 
fluence of rain or moisture and different kinds of food. 
The stronger and more copious the milk of the ewe is, the 
easier the lamb is attacked by dysentery, and this mostly 
takes place a few days after birth. Tjhe disease is particu- 
larly dangerous in hot stables in winter, when the food is 
plentiful and the drink cold. The cure is not easy, and 
the majority of those attacked fall a prey to the disease. 
It is therefore of special importance to attempt its preven- 
tion as much as possible by avoiding all injurious in- 
fluences, by giving dry food and drinks mixed with flour, 
and by keeping the sheep in warm places. If the disease 
makes its appearance in a fold, it is best in all cases to 
change the food, even if it is apparently proper. The fol- 
lowing remedies are serviceable : Opium, ten to twenty 



I^ISEASES OF SHEEP. 97 

grains, rhubarb, one-eighth ounce, mixed -with flour and 
•water or chamomile tea, given in one dose two or three times 
a day. In some cases one-sixteenth ounce of chalk may be 
added. 



POXJGH. 

Cough is very common in sheep, even if not caused by 
or accompanying lung worms, etc., probably because sheep 
are much exposed to the influences of the weather. The 
cough which we propose to consider here is of a drawling, 
metallic character, and is thus distinguished from cough 
produced by other causes. In spring a large portion of a 
flock is sometimes troubled simultaneously with cough, and 
generally no other symptom of sickness is present, except 
perhaps that the patients do not eat as much and are not 
as lively as usual. Cold drink, cold and wet weather, etc., 
are the most common causes of this trifling disease. The 
cough disappears easily if the causes are removed, and a 
salt-lick composed of sulphur, juniper-berries and common 
salt, given occasionally, facilitates the cure. 



LUKG WORMS. 

This disease (known also under the name " lung worm 
cough") occurs almost exclusively in lambs during their 
first year, and very seldom later. Sometimes whole flocks 
are destroyed by it. At first the sick lambs are weak and 
lazy, lose their liveliness, do not grow, become delicate and 
lean, creep along and allow themselves to be caught with- 
9 E 



98 DISEASES OF SHEEP, 

out resistance. The winkiog raenibrane of the eyes, as well 
as the skin under the wool, is pale, symptoms of catarrh 
or cold in the head appear, and the patients cough and 
groan very frequently. 

After a time the cough becomes more frequent, labored, 
sharp and moaning or dull and moist ; the animal sneezes 
and makes efforts to vomit from time to time. The respira- 
tion becomes more and more laborious, and causes a visible 
motion of the flanks and nostrils. Notwithstanding the 
good appetite which is generally present, the lamb con- 
tinually loses flesh and becomes weaker, until finally it dies 
of general debility and exhaustion or of suflbcation. The 
disease is generally very slow, and lasts not unfrequently 
two or three months, or even longer, before death ensues. 

On dissecting the body the principal changes are found 
in the lungs, which are generally flabby, pale or even white, 
contain little blood, and show knots and callous elevations 
at different points. In the windpipe and the bronchial tubes 
are found much frothy mucus and an immense number of 
worms, which are often in balls. They are about one or 
two inches long, not much thicker than sewing thread 
and of a yellowish-white color. They constitute the species 
Strongylus bronchialis, 

Nothing positive is as yet known concerning the causes 
of the disease. It probably originates from a common cold 
in the head or from catarrh of the lungs, which causes the 
formation of the worms in the lungs by its long duration 
under the influence of other injurious circumstances. To 
these belong colds of all kinds, the long-continued action 
of rain or moisture, stormy weather, cold, damp air, etc., as 
well as poor and sparing food, which causes the animal to 
lose strength. 

The disease is very dangerous and destroys most sheep 
which it attacks. It is only at first, as long as the animal 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 99 

retains its vigor, tliat recovery may be expected ; afterward 
death ensues in most cases. 

The prevention of the disease requires proper care and 
food, and everything which might give rise to the plague or 
support a cold must be avoided. 

The treatment of the disease, when the latter becomes 
visible, must not be delayed. As soon as the first signs or 
symptoms, particularly a repeated cough, appear, the animal 
should receive very rich and nutritious food (even grain), 
and must be removed from the influence of rain, moisture 
and cold. To strengthen the digestion and revive the 
action of the skin and kidneys, a lick composed of worm- 
wood, calamus-root, tar, oil of turpentine, salt and oat- 
groats, is given every three or four days. A teaspoonful 
of a mixture of turpentine one part and brandy three 
parts, poured daily down the throat of the patient, renders 
good service. All these remedies, however, are of visible 
avail only as long as the animals remain lively and vigorous, 
retain their appetite and are not yet troubl' i with difficult 
respiration. On the other hand, if the r limal has been 
sick for a long time, is weak and lean, c.;aghs much and 
suffers from a laborious or accelerated respiration, the disease 
mostly resists all attempts to cure it, and the worms in the 
bronchi increase in number and cause an irritation which 
gives ri£v3 to incurable consumption of the lungs. 

Very proper attempts have been made to kill the worms 
in the lungs, in the hope that they would be thrown out by 
the frequently-recurring cough. This has succeeded in a 
few cases, but failed much more frequently. The patients 
are placed in a narrow and if possible hermetically closed 
box, and are allowed to inhale the vapors arising from 
heating or burning horn-shavings, wool, feathers, tar, ver- 
milion or chloride of lime. This may be repeated day 
after day, but owing to the small number of experiments 



100 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

made hitherto, it has not been determined to what point the 
air may be mixed with these vapors. It must be ascertained 
how much the animal can bear without danger. The effect 
of these fumigations, the best of which is chlorine, is some- 
times a violent coughing and expectoration of large lumps 
of dead worms. 

The best and most nutritious food, as well as the above- 
named remedies, must accompany the fumigation. 

Remark. — Calves and hogs not unfrequently suffer from 
these worms, and I have myself observed numerous cases 
where very valuable hogs were destroyed by the disease. 
Their cough mostly commenced while quite young, but 
their condition remained good for a long time, and they 
died only after four or six months. During this time the 
cough constantly increased, the respiration became more 
laborious and accelerated, and the patient wasted away to a 
mere skeleton. They nevertheless remained lively for some 
time, and their appetite was undiminished ; but even the 
richest food was not able to prevent their wasting away, 
and finally death ensued, accompanied by all the symptoms 
of pulmonary consumption. 

The lungs appear bloated and almost white, especially on 
their exterior edges. On cutting into these spots a white 
pus-like mucus oozes out of the bronchi, in which are con- 
tained numerous thin worms. All that has been said about 
the causes, prevention and cure of the disease in lambs 
applies also to hogs and calves. - 



ERYSIPELAS. 



Erysipelas, or wild fire, appears sometimes in spring among 
young, and rarely among old sheep. The patients lose their 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 101 

appetite to a greater or less extent, and have a sad appear- 
ance. The thirst increases, as does also the heat of- the 
body. The skin of the head, eyes and mouth is redder 
than usual and swollen. In a short time little blisters, 
filled with a clear liquid, make their appearance on dif- 
ferent parts of the head. Their skin then bursts and 
the contained liquid flows out, forming a crust or scab, 
which dries and falls off. Generally the complaint heals 
unaided, but sometimes the blisters change to chronic run- 
ning ulcers, which heal only after several weeks, and may 
become so malignant as to cause the death of the animals. 
If wild fire has once been present, it always has a tendency 
to return. 

It almost exclusively selects the nobler races and full- 
blood sheep for its victims, and appears to be caused by the 
sudden change of air and light. The opinion of some that 
it may be produced by poor, vitiated food has not yet been 
proved. To effect a cure the blisters are cut open with a 
scissors or a sharp knife, the liquid pressed out, and the skin 
moistened with a mixture of one ounce of a solution of acetate 
of lead and two ounces of olive or linseed oil, two or three 
times a day. If the head be much swollen, one or more 
woolen strings (setons) may be drawn through the skin over 
the sub-maxillary glands and allowed to remain for one or 
two weeks. If ulcers have already formed, they are duly 
moistened several times with a solution of one ounce of 
chloride of lime or blue vitriol (sulphate of copper) in a 
pint of water. 

The sheep is kept in the stable during treatment, fed with 
copious, nutritious food, and receives, if necessary, a salt- 
lick mixed with sulphur and juniper-berries from time to 
time. 



102 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 



INFLAMMATION OF THE THROAT. 

Inflammation of the throat is rare in sheep, and commonly 
disappears in a few days. Half a pound of blood is ab- 
stracted by bleeding, lukewarm mucilaginous drinks are 
given, and an embrocation of equal parts of volatile lini- 
ment and pine oil applied to the throat after removing the 
wool. 



SORE MOUTH. ' 

Lambs and young pigs are mostly troubled with sore 
mouths. In lambs small inflamed knots appear around 
the nose, which are soon covered with a thick, whitish or 
brownish scab. Sometimes the eruption extends higher up 
and attacks the edges of the eyelids and ears. The malady 
is entirely without danger, and it is only when the lips are 
very sore that the animals are hindered in eating or sucking, 
and they then lose more or less flesh. The cause of the 
disease is unknown, but it seems that an abnormal condition 
of the milk of the ewe has much to do with it. The com- 
plaint generally disappears spontaneously, but the cure 
may be aided by removing the scab with a blunt instru- 
ment and moistening the sores with cream or oil. Internal 
remedies are rarely necessary, but a teaspoonful of mag- 
nesia may be administered daily. 

In pigs the eyelids are chiefly affected, and often appear 
glued together and inflamed. In such cases the eyes are 
moistened and washed with lukewarm milk, and we after- 
ward subdue the inflammation with an eyewash composed 
of one-sixteenth ounce of eye-stone dissolved in one pint 
of water. If the pig is otherwise sick and does not eat or 
suck, it is purged with one-half ounce of glauber salts dis- 



DISEASES or SHEEP. 103 

solved in water. Both the hog and the young must be put 
on spare diet, and the stable must be kept dry and warm. 



EPILEPSY. 



The nature and symptoms of epilepsy in sheep are essen- 
tially the same as in most domestic animals. The fit gene- 
rally lasts from five to fifteen minutes, and the sheep 
remains for a short time in a kind of stupor after its ter- 
mination. It then gets up, walks several steps stiffly, shakes 
itself several times, and is once more in good spirits, has a 
good appetite, etc. Sometimes several such fits take place 
a day, which may gradually cause general debility, wast- 
ing away and death. More frequently, however, weeks and 
months elapse before a repetition of the attack, and then 
the sheep may attain a high age. The causes are the same 
as in cattle. 

As in other domestic animals, little is to be expected of 
the treatment. If worms in the intestines are the cause, 
salt-licks composed of tar, oil of turpentine, shining stove- 
soot, horse-chestnuts, oflTensive animal oil and common salt 
are given. 

As a rule it is advisable to abandon the cure and turn 
the animal over to the butcher, since its meat is perfectly 
healthy and may be eaten without injury. 



STAGGEES. 



Just before an attack of staggers, the sheep lets its head 
hang down, stumbles about as if intoxicated, eats little or 



104 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

nothing, walks behind the rest of the flock, keeps its feet 
far apart, and finally falls to the ground, where it remains 
for a short time as in a swoon. It then gets up again, fol- 
lows the flock and has again the appearance of a healthy 
sheep. These fits return after a time, sometimes sooner and 
sometimes later. Staggers much resemble vertigo, and are 
easily confounded with it, although their causes and true 
nature are widely different. 

The causes of staggers are generally full-bloodedness and 
a considerable rush of blood to the head. The disease 
often appears when the animal sheds its teeth, and is seen 
only in well-fed sheep. Too plentiful food, hot, close air 
and the continued action of the sun's rays are among the 
most frequent causes. It is rarely fatal alone, and the 
patient may keep in good condition for years. It often dis- 
appears spontaneously, and rarely passes into inflammation 
of the brain or apoplexy ; in which case it may end in 
death. 

In order to prevent a repetition of the attack, six or eight 
ounces of blood are removed by bleeding, and this alone 
sometimes cures the disease. It is occasionally necessary 
to purge the patient besides, by giving glauber salts two 
ounces and saltpetre one-eighth ounce, dissolved in water. 
The food must be of moderate quantity, and the animals 
should be kept in a cool, shady place. From time to time 
cold water should be poured over the head of the patient. 



HJEMATURIA. 



Hsematuria, or bloody urine, is not of frequent occur- 
rence, but commonly attacks the greater portion of a flock 
simultaneously. The evacuated urine is of a bloody color, 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 105 

the sheep is very hot and thirsty, sensitive to pressure in 
the region of the kidneys, has a stiff walk and suffers pain 
on urinating. If the causes continue to act, the animal 
ceases to take food, and colic, pain, fever, inflammation of 
the kidneys and death ensue. The duration of the disease 
is generally two or three weeks, but it is rarely dangerous. 
When no proper treatment is adopted, however, death may 
be the consequence. 

The cause consists in eating injurious plants in spring 
and winter when food is scarce, so that the animals are 
forced to browse upon the shoots of trees, especially of pine 
trees. For this reason many head of sheep suffer at the 
same time. Cow's-foot, wild rosemary, wolf's-milk and reed- 
plants cause hsematuria. 

If the disease appears in a flock, hay or straw should be 
given to the sheep, so that they will not be too hungry when 
they arrive on the pasture-ground. They should not be 
allowed to graze in the woods, and should be kept away 
from hedges, bushes and sour reeds. At first one-eighth 
ounce of saltpetre and one-half ounce of glauber salts, dis- 
solved in flour and water, and a few days later one-eighth 
ounce of alum, dissolved in water, or thirty drops of pe- 
troleum or pine oil in flour and w^ater, are given. 



INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. 

This comparatively rare disease is attended by an inflam- 
matory fever, a bent position on standing and by frequent 
attempts to let urine, which is discharged in small quantities 
and bloody. On applying pressure to the region of the 
kidneys the patient evinces signs of pain. The animal fre- 
quently turns to look at its flank, is restless, paws with its 

E* 



106 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

.hind feet and does not take food. Finally all external 
parts become cool, and a general cold perspiration breaks 
out, when the animal commences to shake and tremble, and 
death soon results. 

The causes are mostly the same as in hsematuria. Half 
a pound of blood abstracted immediately, and one-sixteenth 
ounce of saltpetre and half an ounce of glauber salts are 
given every three or four hours. Clysters are injected, and 
an irritating embrocation is applied to the region of the 
kidneys after removing the wool. The cure is very seldom 
successful, because it is generally attempted too late. If 
the above remedies are applied in time, recovery is certain. 



THE ROT. 



The rot, or dropsy, is a common disease, which attacks 
many sheep of a flock, and often does great damage. It is 
analogous to " fluke," which has been described. A sheep 
which has been affected with rot can be recognized even at 
a distance by its languid, lazy walk, its hanging ears, and 
by the rocking of its head. The animal lags behind the 
healthy ones, eats but little, is easily caught without offering 
resistance, and bends its back so as to form a deep hollow 
when the least pressure is applied. The eyes are pale and 
without lustre, the winking membrane white and destitute 
of red veins, and the eyelids bloated. The gums, the lining 
membrane of the mouth and the external skin are pale. 
The wool loses its curl, becomes tangled, dull and lustreless, 
and may be pulled out in large tufts. The digestion is 
more or less impaired, and diarrhoea is mostly present. As 
the disease increases, a painless swelling forms gradually on 
the upper part of the neck near the sub-maxillary glands, 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 107 

Avliich slowly increases in size. The patient loses flesh and 
becomes weak and languid, 'the appetite diminishes, the ru- 
. mination ceases entirely, and the animal suffers much from 
thirst. The eyes run with mucus, the gums are spongy, 
bloated and bleed easily, the belly swells up on account of 
the water which collects in it. The animal wastes away to 
a mere skeleton, lies down constantly, has an offensive diar- 
rhoea, and finally dies. The duration of the disease varies. 
Sometimes it lasts only eight or ten weeks, and sometimes 
a whole year elapses before death p'ats an end to the suf- 
fering. 

In the dead body much water is found under the skin, 
and generally in the pericardium and in the belly. The 
blood is pale, thin and watery, and all the viscera, especially 
the heart, are pale and flabby. 

The rot is produced by many causes, some of which, how- 
ever, have not been as yet sufficiently investigated. It is 
most common in wet years, and is caused by vitiated food 
or grazing on marshy, sour meadows. After very wet sum- 
mers, the rot generally appears late in autumn, continues 
during winter and spring, and sometimes destroys whole 
flocks in the following summer. Marshy meadows seem to 
be much less injurious in spring than in the fall. It may 
be taken for granted that different injurious influences 
acting together are required in order to produce the rot. 

The cure of rot rarely succeeds, and can only be expected 
when the disease is not too far advanced. The prevention 
is therefore of much greater importance. All the above- 
mentioned injurious influences should be avoided, the ani- 
mals kept away from low, marshy and moist pasture- 
grounds, and should receive good, wholesome food, es- 
pecially hay, etc., when in the stable. Particular care 
must be exercised in wet years. The sheep should be kept 
in the stable duriug rainy and foggy weather, and should 



108 DISEASES OE SHEEP. 

not be turned out to graze too soon. From time to time 
galt-lick>s of pine oilj tar^ wormwood, calamus-root and 
juniper-berries should be given. To cure rot when it has 
once broken out a very careful diet must be observed. 
Great care must be had to provide good hay, groat- 
drinks and grain food. The residue of whisky distillation, 
given in portions of twelve pounds a day, is said to be ex- 
cellent. The use of medicines is also necessary, and they 
are most conveniently administered in the form of salt- 
licks. For one hundred sheep the following mixture is 
made into a lick and given twice a week : Calamus-root, or 
wormwood and juniper-berries, each three pounds, common 
salt one and a half pounds, and a quantity of groats. 
Or the following: Mustard one pound, and juniper-berries 
and salt each two pounds, with groats. The use of these 
remedies must be continued for a considerable time. If the 
disease is already in its advanced stages, it is well to aban- 
don the cure, since the meat may be eaten without injury. 



WIKB DROPSY. 



Sheep also are not unfrequently sufferers from wind 
dropsy. The symptoms, causes and degree of danger are 
like those of wind dropsy in cattle. It is most frequently 
produced by the excessive eating of young clover aud other 
green food, especially if it is wet from rain or dew, and by 
grazing on stubble-fields. As long as the distension of the 
stomach is only on the left side, there is no danger ; but if 
the other side also become distended, death may result. In 
mild cases the following treatment is adopted : The dis- 
tended part of the stomach is strongly pressed and kneaded 
with the hands, which often causes repeated eructations and 



DISEASES OF SHEEP, 109 

removes all danger. The sheep is led by a rope of t^visted 
straw into a pond, or if possible into cold running water, and 
then kept in moderate motion. If no improvement takes 
place, a thin tube, provided with a small button of wool or 
linen, is introduced into the stomach through the mouthj 
which causes the air to escape in large quantity. Internal 
remedies are also very beneficial, asj for example, a tea- 
spoonful of burnt lime and water every ten or fifteen min- 
utes, or three-fourths of a pint of soapsuds or lye of ashes, 
or a teaspoonful of mustard, with brandy, etc. Indeed all 
the remedies given to cattle against this disease apply here, 
but only one-third or one-fourth the quantity is given to 
sheep that would be given to cattle under similar circum- 
stances. If the disease runs very high, the same symptoms 
appear as in cattle, and death follows not unfrequently 
from bursting of the stomach. In such cases puncturing 
the belly is the only remedy, which is performed in essen- 
tially the same manner as for cattle. The trochar to be 
used for sheep is about four inches long and as thick 
as a medium-sized quill. It is plunged into the most dis« 
tended part of the belly after removing the wool. AVhen 
the gases have escaped, the trochar should be removed, be- 
cause it is injurious to the animal if it remains in too long. 
The operation easily becomes dangerous in sheep, which 
are more irritable than cattle. Nevertheless it is often the 
only means of saving the animal, and should always be 
performed when there is danger, because it may save the 
patient in a majority of cases. If no trochar is at hand, 
a penknife or other narrow cutting instrument may be em- 
ployed, although with less advantage. After making an 
incision a thin tube is inserted in the opening. The wound 
heals of itself, and may if necessary be covered with a little 
tar. 

The operation of cutting the belly has not, to my know- 

10 



110 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

ledge, been tried in sheep, and is not without considerable 
danger. 

After the gases have escaped, rumination generally re- 
turns immediately, and with it the appetite. A scanty and 
sparing diet at first, and salt-licks, with the addition of 
bitter remedies, such as W'ormwood, calamus, etc., or tar, oil 
of turpentine, etc., complete the cure. 



PALSY OF LAMBS. 

Lambs become palsied almost exclusively during the 
first few "weeks of their lives; most frequently during the 
first and second, and rarely after four or six weeks. 

The more noble races suffer especially from this complaint, 
which rarely affects the common races. It generally ap- 
pears as a plague, and sometimes fifty or eighty per cent, 
of the flock fall a prey to it. The symptoms are not 
always the same. The first striking symptom is generally 
a stiffness of one or more legs ; the lamb w^alks stiffly and 
with difficulty, stands with bent back and the feet drawn 
together under the belly. It bends its knees in walking 
and slides on them. From the parts first aflTected the stiff- 
ness spreads over nearly all the others, especially to the 
neck, as in cramp. During this time, and a little before 
the stiffness appears, the animal is more or less sick, listless 
and sad, is unwilling to change its position, allows its head 
and ears to droop, etc. Complete constipation follow^s or a 
little hard excrement passes with difficulty, and alternates 
sometimes with diarrhoea. The patient then becomes very 
lean and the belly is exceedingly thin and tucked up. 

During the progress of the disease the stiffness and de- 
bility constantly increase, and prevent the lamb from 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. Ill 

reaching the udder of the e-^^^e. The animal then lies down 
often, and perfectly motionless ; if it is raised up, it sinks 
down again completely exhausted. Even during the first 
few da3^s swellings are formed at different joints, which are 
soft, inflamed and very painful. The lamb walks very 
slowly with the aflTected leg, or cannot step on it at ajl. 
The size of the swellings . varies. Sometimes they are as 
large as a walnut and sometimes smaller. 

The disease generally lasts eight or twelve days, but 
death sometimes ensues during the first three or four days ; 
in which case the debility reaches its highest point, and an 
ofiensive diarrhoea sets in. If recovery takes place, it is 
very slow and requires several weeks. 

On dissecting the bodies, nearly the same morbid changes 
are found as in the atrophy of foals. The stomach and in- 
testines are more or less inflamed, the swellings at the joints 
contain a large quantity of clear, bloody or pus-like syno- 
vial fluid, and the ligaments, more rarely the ends of the 
bones, are inflamed ; sometimes yellowish, briny effusions are 
found in different places under the skin, and watery effu- 
sions in the cavities of the chest and belly, but the presence 
of these symptoms depends on the various forms of the 
disease. 

The true nature of this palsy has not been definitely 
ascertained, but it seems to be caused by an inflammation 
of the intestines, coupled with an external rheumatism. 
The causes of the disease are numerous, but the greater 
part have not been sufficiently investigated. Lambs are 
undoubtedly born either with the develojDed disease or with 
a predisposition to it, and the cause must therefore be 
sought in the mother-ewe. Experience teaches that vitiated 
food has such injurious effects during pregnancy that the 
lamb is affected with palsy shortly after its birth. But it 
is not only vitiated food that may be held responsible, but 



112 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

a sudden change of diet during and after parturition, espe- 
ciably if too rich food is given after keeping the ewe on 
scanty diet. If the diet of the ewe during the last months 
of pregnancy consists of much clover, hay, potatoes, grain 
and drinks of groats, the lambs are very prone to palsy 
soon after birth. Mouldy food of all kinds, mouldy oil- 
cakes, rotten carrots, potatoes, etc., as well as putrid water, 
are very injurious. 

The injurious influence of vitiated food in producing the 
palsy of lambs has not only been proved by numerous 
accidental observations, but is shown beyond a doubt by 
interesting and striking direct experiments. The fact that 
the milk of the mother exercises great influence in the 
production of the disease is proved by the experiment of 
allowing healthy lambs to suck the milk of a ewe w^hose 
young perished in this way. I have tried this experiment 
more than fifty times, and the lambs were always afl^ected 
with the disease. The fact is therefore beyond a doubt. 

Not only vitiated or improper food, however, causes the 
milk of the mother to become injurious, but also a diseased 
condition of the ewe, especially if she be affected with the 
fluke and rot. In lambs, catching cold is a source of palsy, 
which is the more certainly produced if the above-men- 
tioned predisposition exists. It cannot, however, be stated 
with certainty whether catching cold is necessary, or whether 
the disease may be produced without, nor has it been ascer- 
tained if it can arise solely from catching cold without the 
presence of a predisposition for the disease or of other cir- 
cumstances. Both are probable, however. It is most com- 
mon during the wet, cold days of March and April and 
during bad weather, especially when the sheep are kept in 
warm, narrow and close stables. It appears particularly in 
weak, thin-wooled lambs whose development is retarded, 
probably because they are most sensitive to cold. 



DISEASES OF SHEEP, 113 

Palsy of lambs is not contagious. This has been proved 
by experiment, and has hardly ever been doubted. If it 
has appeared in a flock, all injurious influences which might 
continue to act must be immediately removed or avoided. 
This is very important, because the cure is very difiicult. 
A proper diet for the ewes is indispensable, and should con- 
sist of good hay, straw, carrots, etc., in winter, while all viti- 
ated food, rotten carrots or potatoes, and poor water must be 
avoided. Drinks of groats or oil-cake in water are also 
objectionable. In summer the animals should be led to the 
best possible pasture. The lambs should never be separated 
too long from the ewes, to prevent their becoming too hun- 
gry and overburdening their stomachs by too much suck 
when they are returned. They should receive suck at 
least every three or four hours. The stable must be free 
from draught and not too warm, the best temperature being 
from 45° to 55° Fahr. Not unfrequently these precautions 
prevent the spread of the disease and make it disappear 
entirely. This must take place if the causes are removed, 
and lambs already afilicted will frequently recover without 
further aid. All lambs which do not evacuate a liquid 
yellowish excrement a short time after birth, which may be 
recognized from the fact of its soiling the tail and the wool 
around the anus, are in danger of the disease, especially if 
cases of it have already occurred in the flock. Their con- 
stipation must be cured by giving them each a small tea- 
spoonful of glauber salts in water, and repeating the dose 
if necessaiy until a thin excrement is discharged. This 
simple treatment is generally sufficient to prevent the dis- 
ease, provided all directions about diet are followed. 
Lambs which sufier already from the disease are also made 
to swallow a laxative like the above. In mild cases this is 
sufficient, but it proves unavailing when the disease runs 
high. A very large number of remedies has been proposed, 
10 * 



114 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

but their enumeration here would be without practical 
benefit. I will therefore mention only those which are sup- 
ported by good authority: 

In the beginning of mild forms of the disease the follow- 
ing is a certain remedy : Five parts of powdered sulphate 
of antimony are mixed with one part of butter, and of this 
a piece of the size of a hazelnut is given three times a day 
to the patient. Tartar emetic one-twenty -fourth ounce, sal 
ammoniac one ounce and glauber salts two ounces, are dis- 
solved in a quart of elder-flower tea, and a teaspoon ful of 
this given four times a day. Clysters of oil, soap and water 
are also injected frequently, and an irritating embrocation 
applied externally. As much magnesia as can be taken up 
with the point of a knife, given in a little chamomile tea, is 
very serviceable, especially if a discharge of dung has 
already taken place. If the same quantity of powdered 
rhubarb is mixed with the magnesia, it renders the remedy 
still more eifective. 

If the disease is already advanced or malignant, medi- 
cines generally afford little relief. The following, how- 
ever, is sometimes serviceable : Extract of nux vomica 
one-half ounce is dissolved in a quart of water, and of this 
a teaspoonful is given three times a day. If great debility 
is present, the following is made to alternate with the nux 
vomica: Camphor one-fourth ounce is rubbed up^ with the 
yolk of an egg and then mixed with chamomile tea, pep- 
permint or calamus-root by shaking. 

Various remedies have also been proposed to cure the 
stiffness and the swellings at different parts of the body. 
Several setons, consisting of a woolen string one inch in 
length, soaked in turpentine, are drawn under the skin of 
the affected leg, or the diseased parts may be moistened 
with oil of turpentine and ammonia. A sharp embroca- 
tion applied twice, or even the burning iron if nothing else 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 115 

is at hand, is useful, It is not advisable to open the swell- 
ings of the joints, because a malignant suppuration and 
caries would generally result. In order to improve the con- 
dition of the whole body, cold baths at about 50° Fahr., to 
which are added very strong chamomile tea, a little salt 
and wood-ashes, are prescribed. The lamb must remain in 
the bath half an hour, and its body should be strongly 
rubbed. It is then dried, wrapped in a woolen blanket, 
and allowed to remain in this way for six hours in the 
warmest part of the stable. This treatment produces an 
increased action of the skin, which frequently brings about 
a cure. If the forces of the lamb, and with them its appe- 
tite and liveliness, return, a cure may be expected with cer- 
tainty, and all that remains to be done is to see that the 
animal frequently receives suck and that it is kept warm. 
The stiffness, which often remains for weeks and months, 
gradually disappears, and the swelled and distorted joints 
regain their natural condition and flexibility. 



MAGGOTS. 



The disease called maggots is produced by a general un- 
healthy condition of lambs and one-year old sheep, in 
which a large number of small worms or maggots (the 
Strongylus contortus) are formed in the stomach. Its symp- 
toms are very similar to those of the lung worms, with the 
exception that the respiration is unimpaired and no cough 
or wheezing is produced. Both diseases sometimes appear 
together. The disease may be recognized with certainty 
only after opening the dead body, when the whole system 
is found to be pale, flabby and lean. In the runnet-bag, 
and sometimes in the duodenum, the above-named worms 



116 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

are found in greater or less quantities, enveloped in tough 
mucus. If one or more lambs have died of the disease, 
and show the same results on dissection, it may be concluded 
that the other sick lambs of the flock suffer from the same 
disease if they exhibit the same symptoms. 

If the disease has not progressed too far, and the lambs 
retain a certain amount of vigor and appetite, a cure fre- 
quently succeeds. Half a teaspoonful of a mixture of 
purified hartshorn oil and turpentine, each half an ounce, 
and brandy four ounces, is given twice a day for several 
days in succession, and the remainder of the treatment is 
like that for luug worms. 



THE LARVJE OF THE GADFLY. 

The gadfly, or oestrus, is found during the whole summer 
near the pasture-grounds of sheep, and annoys them, es- 
pecially in hot weather and at noon. It has not been as- 
certained at what point of the sheep's body it deposits its 
eggs, but it is probably at the nose and lips. It is fre- 
quently observed that the animal, after a gadfly has left it, 
shakes its head violently, stamps with its feet, rubs its nose 
on the ground, runs about, sneezes, hangs down its head and 
looks terrified. When the sheep are seen to stand closely 
together in mid-day heat with their noses on the ground, it 
is probably for the purpose of preventing the oestrus from 
reaching their noses and lips. 

As soon as the larvsB are hatched from the eggs, they 
crawl up through the nose to the sinus of the frontal or of 
the maxillary bone, into the cells of the ethmoid bone or 
into the cavities of the uvula. They attach themselves to 
the mucous membrane by means of their hooks, and live on 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 117 

the pus-like secretions which are produced there. In ten 
months they reach their maturity, and drop out of the 
nose or are thrown out by frequent snorting and sneezing 
of the sheep. This occurs generally from March to August, 
and the larvae then undergo further changes on the outside 
of the sheep's body. If large numbers of these larvae are 
present in the cavities of the head, they produce in spring, 
when they are fully developed, various symptoms of disease, 
and even death. When the disease is of a mild character, 
the patients sneeze frequently, rub their heads against dif- 
ferent objects, shake them violently, lift their noses high, 
and remain in this position for some time or turn aside, and 
there is a discharge of mucus from the nose. In a more 
violent form of the disease, the patient lets its head drop 
down to the ground, walks about as if intoxicated, turns 
around, becomes stupid and sad, and ceases to take food. 
These symptoms are often mistaken for vertigo. When the 
disease has reached its highest point, the animal loses flesh, 
falls down frequently, grinds its teeth, rolls its reddened 
eyes, and finally dies on the fourth or eighth day. In mild 
cases recovery takes place unaided : the larvae are thrown 
out by frequent sneezing, along with mucus ; and this is the 
only sure sign of the disease, at least for the non-professional. 
Sometimes vertigo is present at the same time. 

If the head of a dead animal is opened, more or less 
larvae are found in the above-mentioned cavities, which re- 
semble those found in the stomach of horses. The mucus 
membrane of these cavities is inflamed, red, bluish, dark- 
red or ash-colored, and sometimes even gangrenous at 
diflerent points. Thirty and even forty of these larvae have 
been found together, but there is generally a much smaller 
number present. 

To cure the malady, the larvae must be removed. For 
this purpose a little snufi" or sneeze-wort ( Veratrum sabadilla). 



118 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

lime, etc., is introduced into the nose several times a day, 
wliich occasions such violent sneezing that the larvae are 
sometimes gradually thrown out. Twenty or thirty drops 
of animal oil may also be injected into the nose. In many 
cases these remedies are unsuccessful, especially when the 
symptoms are very violent. The remedies must then be 
introduced directly into the cavities or sinuses. For this 
purposes, the horns are sawed off close to the head, or an 
opening is made into the frontal and maxillary sinuses by 
means of a trochar, and the remedies introduced through 
these channels. The larvae cannot bear the external air 
and die soon. They are then ejected by sneezing. The ar- 
tificial openings heal in a short time unaided. 

If many sheep suffer at the same time, it is very incon- 
venient to treat them separately. Hair, feathers, tar and 
horn-shavings are burnt in such cases in the stable, in order 
to produce sneezing. To prevent the adhesion of the larvae 
and eggs, the nose and lips of the sheep should be covered 
with oil, fat, tar or hartshorn oil, especially at the time 
when the insects appear in great numbers. This applies 
particularly to lambs and one-year old sheep, which are 
most frequently attacked. 



MADNESS. 



It is a peculiar fact that madness is of much rarer occur- 
rence in sheep than in cattle, notwithstanding that there 
are more flocks of sheep than herds of cattle, and that the 
shepherds' dogs are generally of the same race as those 
kept by keepers of cattle. The cause of this is difficult to 
explain. Perhaps sheep are not so susceptible to the virus 
or contagion as cattle, and the bite of the dog is more fre- 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 119 

quently liarmless because the thick wool keeps the saliva 
from the wound. 

Since I had an opportunity, about twenty yearg ago, to 
observe five mad sheep, I am able to give a correct de- 
scription of the symptoms. The disease began, as in all 
animals, by general listlessness and sadness, but the oppo- 
site soon took place. The animals were very wild and 
restless, and jumped constantly on other sheep; their look 
was wild and threatening, and they attacked all objects in 
their reach, even men and dogs. Their restlessness and 
excitement was very great. They ran about, stamped and 
bit the ground, butted their heads against it, and jumped 
about in a very peculiar way. Some of the sheep bleated 
occasionally, producing a piercing shriek. The appetite 
and rumination ceased even from the first, and a sort of 
palsy set in. One sheep, which had been sick for three 
days and was kept in the stable, was palsied so much that 
it could scarcely get up. Its eyes were opened widely and 
glittered with peculiar lustre. It bit at a stick which 
was held in its reach, and even at the iron prongs of a 
dung-fork, so violently that its mouth began to bleed. 
After I had opened the stable-door, it sprang up and made 
an attack on men. A dog that went barking up to the 
sheep could not intimidate it, although it was generally 
very easily frightened. It even attacked the dog and made 
it retreat. No fear of water could be discovered. All of 
the mad sheep died on the fourth and sixth days. 

The appearance of madness after the bite is not limited to 
any definite time. It has been observed after eight days, 
but may not break out until after several months. In the 
above-mentioned case, five and six weeks respectively had 
elapsed. The post-mortem examination yielded uncertain 
and unimportant results. The dead bodies were buried 
deeply or burnt, and the stable well cleaned. Especially 



120 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

must the dung be removed, and all objects brushed over 
with whitewash to which chloride of lime has been added. 



TO TELL THE AGE OF SHEEP. 

The age of sheep, like that of the other domestic animals, 
may be determined from the change and condition of the 
teeth. This is certain up to the sixth year inclusively, and 
tolerably sure after this age. The sheep, like the ox, has 
eight incisors, which are all situated in the lower jaw, 
as in all ruminating animals. The visible part of the 
teeth which projects above the gums is called the crown. 
At its lower end, the crown becomes thinner and is en- 
veloped in the gum. This part is called the neck. The 
lower end of the tooth, which tapers to a point and is 
situated in the socket, is called the root All the teeth are 
placed loosely in the sockets and admit of more or less mo- 
tion. The two middle teeth are called the tongs or gath- 
erers; the two on each side, the inner middle teeth ; and 
the next on each side, the outer middle teeth. The two ex- 
ternal ones are called the corner teeth. 

In new-born lambs the two gatherers are just visible above 
the gums ; after six or eight days, the two inner middle 
teeth, and after four or six days more the two outer middle, 
teeth, make their appearance. Six or eight days later 
the two corner teeth may be seen ; so that in three weeks 
after birth the sheep has its full complement of incisors. 
These teeth, called milk-teeth, become longer and broader, 
and reach their full development at the end of the first 
year. Their upper edge, or edge of the crown, is some- 
what pointed. 

The milk-teeth remain from eighteen to twenty months, 



DISEASES OF SHEEP« 121 

and then fall out, and are replaced by permanent teeth in 
the same order in which they appeared. The permanent 
teeth differ from the milk-teeth by the fact that the upper 
edge is not pointed, but straight and dull. They are also 
stronger and broader than the milk-teeth, and no longer 
milk-white, but yellowish. 

When the sheep is eighteen or twenty months old, the 
milk-teeth fall out and are replaced by two permanent 
teeth. The animal is then called two-toothed. 

When the sheep is three and a half years old, the two 
outer middle teeth fall out and are replaced by two perma- 
nent teeth. 

When the sheep is four and a half years old, the two 
corner teeth fall out and are replaced by two permanent 
teeth ; and now all have changed. The animal is then 
called eight-toothed. 

In the sixth year the permanent teeth have obtained their 
full development, and are long and broad. The upper 
edge appears smooth and sharp. 

After the sixth year the incisors undergo different 
changes, from which the age of the sheep can be discovered 
with a tolerable degree of certainty. The edges of the 
crown gradually become nicked and dented, until they 
wear down almost to the root. This takes place in the 
some order as the changes of the teeth. In the seventh 
year both tongs or gatherers become notched at the edge of 
the crown, and in the eighth the nearest two become notched, 
although a more distant one may change instead, and the 
notches of the gatherers become deeper. In the ninth 
year the crowns of the gatherers and the inner middle 
teeth are indented very deeply, and the other teeth also 
begin to show notches. In the tenth and twelfth years the 
crowns of all incisors are broken and worn, so that noth- 
ing but the roots remain. 

11 F 



122 DISEASES OF SHEEP, 

Under certain circumstances, produced by diseases, food, 
etc., the wearing out of the teeth sometimes varies con- 
siderably from the above order. Some sheep lose the crowns 
of their teeth in the sixth and seventh years, while others 
retain them unchanged until the eighth and tenth years or 
even longer. Vigor and health of body preserve the teeth. 



CANCER OF THE TONGUE. 

Cancer of the tongue is a species of gangrene or mortifi- 
cation of the spleen, which is contagious, and may be rec- 
ognized by a blister on the tongue, which speedily changes 
to a cancerous ulcer. Symptoms of general sickness are 
not usually observed before the appearance of the local 
disease, but fever is sometimes present. The tongue, palate 
and gums are swollen, bright red and warmer than usual. 
The motion of the tongue is obstructed, and bliigters of the 
size of a pea or hazel-nut, filled with serum, blood or pus, 
are found on it, which burst, discharge their contents and 
leave gangrenous wounds or continue to spread. The blis- 
ters are either few and large or many and small. The part 
of the tongue on which the ulcers are situated is insensible, 
cold and of a blue or black color. If the disease spread, 
the larynx and pharynx are also attacked. After the 
ulcers have developed, symptoms of fever appear, and if 
nothing is done to check the disease, death results after 
convulsions, distension of the belly, cold feet and cold 
sweats, in twelve to forty-eight hours. Recovery may be 
hoped for when a good treatment is adopted early to make 
the ulcers assume a mild form. 

The disease frequently attacks horses and mules. In 
1862, 1 treated more than thirty thousand horses and mules 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. , 123 

in the United States Army of the Potomac, which suifered 
from the same disease, and not a single one fell a victim to 
it. This I can prove by the highest authorities, and I am 
therefore sufficiently acquainted with the disease to describe 
it and give an opinion concerning it. 

A post-mortem examination exhibits the partial destruc- 
tion of the tongue, besides the phenomena described under 
"Gangrene of the Spleen." The disease might be con- 
founded with the mouth plague, but in the latter the blisters 
are scattered all over the mouth and leave no deep ulcer 
after opening. It is also generally in combination with the 
foot rot. Cancer of the tongue is of much shorter duration, 
and is much more fatal. The causes are the same as those 
of gangrene of the spleen. 

The success of the treatment depends on its early com- 
mencement, before the blisters have opened and changed to 
ulcers. The blisters should be cut out of the tongue, if 
possible, without tearing them. They may be squeezed out 
with a strong tin spoon, and moistened with concentrated 
muriatic acid, or, better still, sulphuric acid, by means of a 
brush, after removing the contents with a sponge. Care 
should be taken that the matter does not come in contact 
with the operator. The food should be soft and tender. 
The patients should be separated from the healthy animals. 



INTERNAL DISEASES. 



Internal diseases are those which are not situated in 
the organs on the surface of the body, which cannot be per- 
ceived by our senses (sight, feeling, etc.), and which are 
cured principally by medicines passing into the blood 
through the organs of digestion. Although we cannot see 
a diseased internal organ, we can discover an abnormal 
condition from the disturbance of its functions and of those 
of the whole system. The signs by which we can determine 
the nature, degree and duration of the disease are called 
its symptoms. They are the. language of Nature, which 
shows its suffering and calls for help through them. If 
these signs are rightly interpreted, we will be able to judge 
the disease correctly and to select the proper remedies, but 
if the signs are misunderstood, a wrong conclusion is ar- 
rived at, and the consequences are unfavorable. Whenever 
an abnormal condition is discovered, there is a diseased 
action of some organ present, and in order to find the seat 
of the disturbance it is indispensable to know the functions 
of each separate organ in the healthy animal thoroughly. 
Breeders and owners of animals should therefore endeavor 
to become acquainted with them by careful observation of 
healthy animals. 

If an animal is sick — and this is generally easily recog- 
nized — the next step is to discover from what disease it 
suffers ; that is, what organ is affected. For this purpose 
the patient must be examined. The owner of cattle must 

124 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 125 

ask himself the following questions and answer them by a 
thorough examination of the sick animal and an observa- 
tion of all the symptoms : 

With regard to the surface of the body. Is the heat in- 
creased, diminished or unevenly distributed ? Are the ex- 
tremities warmer or colder ? Are swellings found on the 
skin, and of what nature are they ? Are ulcers present ? 
Are the mucous membranes of the nose and mouth red, 
pale or yellowish, and are blisters or ulcers found on them ? 
Are the eyes dull, deeply situated and without visible veins? 
Is the belly distended or flabby ? Are the hoofs in their 
normal condition? 

With regard to the circulation of the blood and the respii^a- 
tion. Is the breathing attended by groaning, whistling or 
other noises? Is there considerable motion of the ribs, 
flanks and belly, and does the animal breathe with distended 
nostrils? Is the exhaled air hot, cold or ill-smelling? 
Does the animal use its voice? Does it cough, and of wdiat 
nature is the cough ? Is it dry, moist, wheezing, etc., and 
is it most frequent in the morning ? 

With regard to the digestion, excretions and secretions. Is 
the appetite diminished, or has it disappeared entirely? 
Does the animal prefer one kind of food to another? Does 
it eat fast or slowly ? Can it open its mouth properly, and 
does it retain the food in its mouth without chewing it? 
Can it swallow well, and does it drink much, hastily or 
slowly ? Does a portion of the water run out again through 
the nose ? Is there a frequent or a rare discharge of ex- 
crement, and is the latter compact, moist, dry, liquid, or in 
large or in small balls ? What is its color ? Does it con- 
tain undigested food, W'Orms, matter, blood or mucus, and 
is it offensive? Is there a discharge from the nose, and 
what is its nature ? Is it thick or thin, adhesive, yellow, 
creamy, greenish, or clear and watery ? Does it smell ? 
11 * 



126 DISEASES OF SHEEP, 

Is the moutli dry or moist, hot or cold, and is it covered 
with froth ? Does the animal perspire easily ? Does it 
urinate frequently or seldom, much or little ? Does it re- 
quire exertion, and is it painful? Does the urine come 
gradually and in drops ? Is it thick or thin, watery, clear, 
troubled or bloody? 

With regard to the senses. Is the animal sensitive to ex- 
ternal impressions or dull ? Are the eyes opened or closed, 
clear or dim, shining or dullj and is the animal insensible 
and stupid ? 

With regard to the organs of locomotion. Does the animal 
stand with curved back? Does it look at its belly in a 
restless manner, or is it quiet ? Does it lie down and roll 
about ? Are its motions lively or slow and lazy ? Does it 
limp and totter ? Is the neck movable or immovable, hard 
or stiff? 

It must be further considered if one or more parts suffer 
at the same time. 

Even if owners of cattle cannot recognize the disease 
from the group of symptoms, they will be able to give the 
veterinary practitioner valuable information concerning the 
commencement of the disease, and enable him to fix on a 
plan of treatment much sooner than without such informa- 
tion. 

Another way of recognizing diseases' is to dissect animals 
after death, and examine the different organs as to their 
texture, color, consistency, position, changes, etc. Such 
post-mortem examinations mostly enable one to determine 
the character of the disease with certainty if this could not 
be done during life, and to ascertain its seat and the reason 
of its fatal termination. It is necessary, however, in cases of 
errors, doubts and wrong conclusions, to consult practical 
veterinarians, possessing thorough anatomical knowledge, 
and not ({uacks who are destitute of it, as is too often tlie case. 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 127 

CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES. 

Ever since the most remote ages it has been customary 
to divide the mass of diseases into classes for greater con- 
venience, and I will here mention some of the most im- 
portant for the better understanding of different terms. 

With regard to duration, diseases are divided into — 

Short, aciite, which do not last longer than three or four 
weeks ; 

Exceedingly short, which do not last longer than three 
days, such as various forms of mortification of the sjDleen 
and colic ; 

Very short, which terminate on the seventh or tenth day ; 
and 

Slow, chronic, which last longer than forty days, and may 
continue for years, as rot of the lungs. 

Plagues attack many animals — either of the same species, 
as sheep, or of different species, as horses and cattle, from 
the same causes. They are divided into — 

General plagues, epidemics, or epizoics, which originate 
from external, general, unusual and transitive causes, and 
commit ravages among the different species in different lo- 
calities at the same time. 

Local plagues or enzoics, which occur only in certain 
localities, and arise from local causes, such as topographical 
situation, soil, pasture, stables, etc. ; for example, " fluke." 

Contagious and non-contagious plagues. The former in- 
clude the pox of sheep, mortification of the spleen, cancer 
of the tongue, sore mouth, foot rot, scab, pneumonia and 
diarrhoea. 

Non-contagious plagues are — rot, fluke, lung worms and 
maggots. 

Single, or sporadic diseases are those which attack 



128 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

only single individuals from special causes, as, for example, 
inflammation. Sporadic diseases may, however, sometimes 
assume the character of a plague, and vice versa. 

With regard to the mode of spreading into contagious and 
non-contagious disease. 

Contagious diseases are those in which matter is formed 
and discharged, which may produce the same disease in 
other healthy animals if it is transferred to them. This 
matter is called " the virus of the disease." 

If the virus is contained in certain bodies, such as saliva, 
blood, mucus, excrements, etc., it is called fixed (as in mor- 
tification of the spleen and madness), and acts either by 
being directly transferred to the body of a healthy animal 
(by licking, biting, etc), or by the healthy animals coming 
in contact with objects contaminated with it (such as har- 
ness, blankets, cribs, mangers, etc.). 

If the virus separates as a vapor, as by the exhalations 
of the skin and the respiration, it is thus mixed with the 
air and breathed by other animals. Winds sometimes carry 
it to a considerable distance. It acts probably by being 
inhaled and by coming thus in contact with the blood. The 
fixed virus is mostly produced by chronic diseases not at- 
tended by fever, and the volatile by feverish diseases. In 
many, a fixed and a volatile virus are developed at the 
same time. Many kinds of virus act only on the species in 
which they are developed (as in the rinderpest and pleuro- 
pneumonia), while others may be transferred to other animals 
(such as madness and mortification of the spleen). 

Some contagious diseases attack an animal but once, as 
the sheep pox, rinderpest, etc., and the animal is then no 
longer susceptible for their virus. 

Non-contagious diseases are those in which no virus is 
formed. They comprise by far the most numerous class ; 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 129 

for example, inflammation of the lungs, vertigo, inflamma- 
tion of the brain, etc. 

The healing process is an action of the system by which 
the disease is decomposed, and health is made to return 
either by nature alone or with the aid of art. The great 
power to heal lies in the organism of the animal itself, and 
it is in our power only to modify the eflbrts of nature. 
This object may often be accomplished by a negative 
method, as by removing certain irritations, changing the 
diet, etc. An active interference is sometimes unnecessary, 
because nature itself often possesses the power to restore the 
health. Premature interference is productive of more in- 
jury than benefit, and there is no doubt that nature is able 
to heal many diseases in man and other animals. 

To restore health the following requirements must be 
fulfilled : 1. The cause of the disease must be removed if 
possible ; 2. The product of the disease must be got rid of; 
3. The aflected organ must be renovated ; and, 4. What 
has been lost must be replaced by rest and proper food. 

The fulfillment of these requirements belongs principally 
to art, since nature does not always or quickly enough suc- 
ceed in removing the cause of the disease (foreign bodies 
and external irritating influences), in preventing its pro- 
gress, and in avoiding dangerous influences. 

F * 



DISEASES OF CATTLE. 



To make this work more complete, I will add a disserta- 
tion on the Diseases of Cattle, dwelling more especially 
on epidemic diseases and their treatment, as far as may be 
serviceable to the farmer or cattle-owner who has not 
studied the art of curing them. As a matter of course, a 
certain degree of intelligence and interest in the subject 
must .be present. I have avoided all expressions which pro- 
duce an ornamental style at the expense of clearness, and 
all technicalities which are not generally understood by the 
non-professional. My endeavor has been to write in a clear 
and popular style, and with all the brevity consistent with 
thoroughness and the demands of the practical farmer. 

Since the pleuro-pneumonia (rinderpest) and the spleen 
disease have at the present time made their appearance in 
different States of the Union, I think it my duty to make 
public the experience which I may have acquired in treat- 
ing them. The importance of diffusing knowledge on this 
subject is the more apparent from the fact that the diseases 
in question undermine the wealth of whole countries, and 
this has been recognized by the different governments, who 
have given especial attention to the subject. I hope the 
public will favor me with their confidence, as I have proved 
that I am fully acquainted with the symptoms, the origin 
and the course of the diseases. In 1866 I entered into a 
contract with the British Minister, Sir Frederick Bruce, to 
130 



DISEASES OF CATTLE. 131 

cure seventy-five per cent, of the sick cattle in England, 
Scotland, Ireland and Wales, and succeeded in curing a 
greater proportion than the contract called for. 

The assertion made by ignorant persons that the malady 
w as " Spanish disease" is erroneous, since Spain was com- 
paratively the least afflicted with the epidemic, and Spanish 
cattle were preferred to those of Holland, East Friesland, 
Oldenburg and Holstein during my residence in England. 
It has also been asserted that the disease was the pox, and 
killing was recommended, because no cure was possible for 
that disease. My experience in thousands of cases where a 
perfect cure was effected enables me to contradict this. To 
prove my assertion, I will offer to cure ninety per cent, of 
animals affected with the epidemic. The epidemic has also 
been fi-equently mistaken for spleen disease. The latter 
broke out among the United States cattle droves after the 
surrender of Kichmond, and I succeeded in curing more 
than five thousand head in Alexaiidria duriug the months 
of July and August. 

In Europe, more particularly in Prussia and Bussia, the 
districts where epidemics appear are, as it is termed, en- 
closed by a cordon ; that is, no cattle or food, such as hay, 
straw, etc., are allowed to pass over the boundary of the in- 
fected district until the superintending veterinary surgeon 
declares that no new cases have occurred for ninety days. An 
inspection by an experienced veterinarian who is thoroughly 
conversant with the disease would be very desirable, in 
order to prevent the spread of the epidemic to other States. 



THE CATTLE POX. 

The cattle or cow pox belongs to the rarer and less im- 
portant diseases, and it easily disappears again spontane- 



132 DISEASES OF CATTLE, 

ously. It is not necessary therefore to consider it from an 
economical point of view, and its description here would be 
entirely superfluous were it not for the highly important 
and interesting relation which it bears to small pox in the 
human being. 

The pox consists of a peculiar eruption on the udder of 
cows. It rarely appears on bulls or oxen, perhaps only 
after contagion. The eruption generally takes place on the 
teats of the udder, but is also found on other parts of it in 
exceptional cases. It appears in the following manner: 
One or more red spots form on the udder, having the ap- 
pearance of flea-bites. In their centre a red, hard knot 
appears, which is very small at first. In a few days this 
knot increases in size, projects more above the surface of 
the skin, and the latter becomes less red. From the eighth 
to the tenth day the pox has attained its maximum size, 
and has then a whitish, yellowish, bluish or silvery appear- 
ance. The red circle around it ha.s then disappeared, and 
it has an oval or circular sha.pe of the size of a half dime. 
It projects above the skin, and is somewhat depressed in the 
centre. It is tolerably hard, has a cellular, spongy struc- 
ture like a lemon, and contains a clear, watery, colorless 
and odorless liquid or lymph, which oozes out in small 
quantity when an incision is made into the pox. Ten or 
twelve days after the appearance of the disease, ihe lymph 
becomes troubled and changes to pus or matter; the tumor 
dries up, and a hard scab is formed, while the size of the 
eruption diminishes. The scab begins to form in the centre, 
and gradually spreads to the circumference. It is at first 
clear and yellow, but soon becomes brown, and finally dark- 
brown and nearly black. From the twenty-first to the 
twenty-eighth day, sometimes a little sooner and sometimes 
a little later, it drops off and leaves a permanent scar, 
which is reddish at first and afterward recovers the natural 



DISEASES OF CATTLE, 133 

color of the udder. True cow pox always shows these phe- 
nomena, but awkward milking, incorrect treatment and many 
other circumstances often conspire to change its appearance 
and defer the cure. The number of the spots, as well as 
their size, varies. In some cases only a few, and in others 
thirty, forty or even more appear. Sometimes they become 
no larger than a pea, while at others they reach the size of 
a dime. Frequently eruptions of different sizes are found 
on the same animal, but they rarely appear simultaneously. 
Their appearance is generally gradual, and the last may 
not be developed until one or two weeks after the first. 
For this reason the udder may be covered with eruptions in 
all the different stages of their development. In many 
cases, especially if many and large tumors are present, the 
udder is more or less sensitive and swollen, which may be 
caused by the fact that the cow cannot be milked at all, or 
only partially. No other symptoms of disease except the 
local ones are perceived, and the animal appears to be per= 
fectly healthy. Rarely a fever makes its appearance, and 
then the cow eats little or not at all, does not chew the cud, 
and yields less and thinner milk than usual. These symp- 
toms are present only from a few days before the eruption 
appears to its complete development, and they always dis- 
appear when the tumors dry up. The cow pox is most fre- 
quent in the middle period of life and in the first few months 
after calving ; but it has been observed on cows two years 
old, which had never calved, and in old cows that ceased to 
give milk. The disease appears in all countries, and topo- 
graphical position or climate seems to exercise no perceptible 
influence. The disease is of more frequent occurrence in sum- 
mer than in winter. Everything tending to produce a rush 
of blood to the udder, the change from poor and scanty to 
copious and nutritious food, and the more plentiful secre- 
tion of milk after calving, facilitate its development. 
12 



134 DISEASES OF CATTLE, 

We are wholly in the dark concerning the cause of cow 
pox. It arises spontaneously and attacks but once. In 
many cases it is imparted by contagion, as when a person 
milks a healthy cow after one affected with the pox. It 
never appears as an epidemic, but is sometimes produced 
by contagion from the malanders (grease) in horses. 

The cow pox is not only a very harmless, but a very in- 
significant disease. The accompanying slight fever and 
loss of appetite require no treatment, because they are of 
no consequence and disappear after a few days, when all 
the organs of the body again resume their natural functions. 
Nothing can be done to the udder, because the eruption can 
be neither accelerated nor retarded. It is therefore best 
not to interfere. All that can be done is to avoid rough 
handling and irritating external influences. The udder 
must be milked frequently (if this can be done without 
irritating the teats too much), very gently and with oiled 
hands. If this cannot be done on account of the number 
of tumors, and if the udder is very much swollen and in- 
flamed, the animal should receive very scanty green food, 
and should be purged with half a pound or a pound of 
glauber salts. It is well to keep the patient warm and 
covered with a blanket. As soon as the tumors begin to 
dry up and change to scab, the fever disappears and the 
appetite and rumination (chewing the cud) return. No- 
thing can then be done but to cover the scabs with oil or 
cream. 

If from improper treatment or other causes the tumors 
have passed into ulcers secreting an offensive liquid, and 
refuse to heal or cicatrize, an external treatment is neces- 
sary. The part should be washed several times a day with 
a solution of one ounce of alum or chloride of lime in a 
quart of cold water, or with a decoction of two ounces of 
oak or willow bark in a quart of water. If the udder is 



DISEASES OF CATTLE. 135 

inflamed and full of milk, the diet should be scanty, and 
the cow should be frequently milked with care. 

We have seen that the cow pox is not only of no import- 
ance in an economical point of view, since it involves no 
pecuniary loss, but it is of incalculable benefit to the human 
race. Millions of the present generation are indebted to it 
for their lives, and for the fact that their faces are not dis- 
figured by the small pox. Doctor Edward Jenner, an 
English physician, in 1775, made the invaluable discovery 
that persons who had an eruption on their hands, caused 
accidentally by milking cows affected with the pox, did 
not get the small pox. This led him to try several experi- 
ments. He innoculated the virus or poison of the small 
pox into persons who had had the cow pox, and failed in 
producing the disease. This led him to suppose that such 
persons were no longer susceptible to small pox, and his 
supposition was strikingly confirmed. He selected several 
persons and vaccinated them with the lymph of the cow 
pox, and the cow pox was in all cases developed in them 
without the appearance of other symptoms of disease. 
He afterward vaccinated the same persons with the lymph 
of small pox and without effect. These persons w^ere not 
infected by touching small pox patients. 

It has therefore been demonstrated that the susceptibility 
for small pox is destroyed by vaccinating with the matter 
of the cow pox, which is a sure and perfectly harmless 
remedy for that terrible disease. 

The lymph of cow pox is called vaccine-matter (from 
vacca, a cow), and its innoculation, vaccination. 

The discovery of Dr. Jenner naturally created the great- 
est sensation in the civilized world, and all governments 
took speedy measures to enjoy its advantages. At first it 
met with considerable opposition, prejudice and so-called 
religious scruples. But the force of truth conquered, and 



136 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

it was soon acknowledged that vaccination was entirely 
without danger and one of the greatest blessings. 

Before its discovery one-seventh — or, according to some, 
one-fifth — of the small pox patients died, and this large pro- 
portion does not include those that lost the sense of sight 
or of hearing or that escaped with disfigured faces. Since 
the discovery of vaccination, which is now prescribed by 
law in all well-governed countries, cases of small pox are 
rarities, and deaths from it hardly ever occur. Among 
thousands of young faces scarcely one is seen disfigured 
by small pox. 

The lustre of the discovery has, however, of late been 
somewhat dimmed, because it has been observed that years 
after vaccination the small pox nevertheless broke out, and 
with disastrous consequences. This observation has given 
rise to the supposition that the vaccine-matter deteriorated 
by being propagated from arm to arm and by being re- 
moved too far from its original source. For this reason 
endeavors are made to secure a fresh supply direct from the 
cow. Every owner of cattle would secure the thanks of 
the medical authorities by giving them immediate notice of 
the appearance of the cow pox. 

Besides the above cow pox, other eruptions, whicK may 
be easily confounded with it, sometimes appear on the udders 
of cows, but they are without danger, and disappear again 
spontaneously. 



SPLEEN DISEASE, 



As spleen disease is so frequently confounded with 
pleuro-pneumonia, even by practitioners, I find it necessary 
to make public a description of the disease. It attacks all 
domestic animals, even poultry, is highly dangerous, and 



DISEASES OF CATTLE. 137 

kills the majority of the patients so quickly as to leave no 
time for remedies. Cattle, pigs, sheep, and more rarely 
horses, are most liable to its attacks. It is most frequent 
in warm climates and in summer. The disease was known 
in ancient times, and we find an account in Homer's " Iliad" 
of its ravages among the cattle herds of the Greeks. 

The disease is of exceeding short duration, and fatal in 
the majority of cases, unless the speedy assistance of a 
veterinarian, who is thoroughly conversant with the disease, 
is procured. 

• Spleen disease in cattle. As has been remarked, cattle are 
the most frequent sufferers by spleen disease, which occurs 
in the following forms : 

1. Spleen fever, which is of tolerably frequent occurrence 
and short duration. A perfectly healthy animal is sud- 
denly attacked while working or eating, and even while its 
mouth is yet full of food. It drops down as if struck by 
lightning, and dies after a few minutes in convulsions. 
Sometimes the fit lasts several or even twelve to sixteen 
hours. The animal then becomes languid and weak, ceases 
to take food, staggers about, appears benumbed or wild and 
irritated, bellows with pain, and runs madly about. A 
frothy mucus, frequently mixed with blood, runs out of the 
mouth and nostrils, the eyes are reddened, filled with tears 
and project out of the orbits. Convulsions then appear, 
and finally death ensues. Immediately after death, black, 
tar-like blood runs out of the nostrils, the mouth and anus ; 
the vagina opens and shows a dark-red or bluish color, and 
the body very soon passes into putrefaction. 

The fever is not always, however, of such short duration. 
Sometimes eighteen to thirty-six hours elapse before death 
ensues. In such cases the disease commences with trem- 
bling and convulsive twitchings at different points of the 
skin. The animal stands off from the manger, or follows 

12* 



138 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

the herd slowly and hesitatingly if in the field, becomes 
stupid and lazy, lets its head droop, puts down its feet ir- 
regularly, and pays little attention to surrounding objects. 
The appetite and the ruminating disappear immediately, 
cows cease to give milk and the thirst diminishes or disap- 
pears entirely. The animal is fearful, has a wild look ; the 
surface of the body, the ears, the horns and the mouth be- 
comes alternately hot and cold ; the eyes, w^hich at first were 
red and fiery, become dull ; blood frequently runs out of 
the nose and anus ; the mouth is filled with saliva ; the 
respiration is labored, forcible and snorting; the patient 
gnashes its teeth ; the pulse beats seventy to a hundred 
times a minute, and the beating of the heart is loud and 
can be felt. Finally, the surface of the body becomes cool, 
and the animal dies in convulsions. I have seen cases in 
my practice where death ensued only after the fifth day, 
but these are exceptions, and can only be accounted for by 
a very strong constitution of the animal. 

2. Spleen earhuncle. In many, and perhaps in the ma- 
jority of cases, boils or carbuncles break out on different 
parts of the body, especially on the head, neck, shoulders, 
flanks, buttocks or thighs, either at the appearance or during 
the course of the fever. These boils are developed very 
quickly in larger or smaller numbers, are at first hot, grow 
in height and breadth with great rapidity, and then become 
mostly cool and insensible. On cutting into them, a yel- 
lowish, briny, jelly-like mass is found under the skin. The 
development of carbuncles has often been considered as a 
natural and healthy diversion or turning aside of the dis- 
ease ; but it has been ascertained that they increase the 
danger if they appear on the head or neck, and obstruct 
the respiration or render it impossible. They may also be- 
come fatal by passing into gangrenous ulcers. If they 
suddenly disappear, however, it is generally a sign of death, 



DISEASES OF CATTLE. 139 

because internal parts, especially the lungs, are then at- 
tacked. 

3. In some cases of spleen fever, thick, tar-like blood 
collects in the rectum. These symptoms have been erro- 
neously taken for a different disease, but they are only ac- 
cidental attendants of spleen disease. Since spleen disease 
is highly dangerous, and most animals attacked die, it is 
very important to avoid confounding it with other diseases. 
If in a short time several head of cattle perish suddenly, 
especially in summer, without the previous appearance of 
other diseases, spleen disease may always be suspected. 
Such cases are most easily mistaken for wind colic, but this 
is caused by overfeeding, particularly with clover. 

If spleen disease has broken out in a herd, the healthy 
animals must be separated from the sick, and the latter put 
in a spacious, cool, shady and well-ventilated place. The 
air should continually renew itself, while dampness com- 
bined with heat, as well as the action of the hot rays of 
the sun and putrid swamp and stable air, should be very 
carefully avoided. 

The best remedy, which I used in my own practice, was 
pouring moderately cold water from some distance above 
over the patient until violent trembling ensues. Internally, 
half an ounce of sulphuric acid in half a pint of water is 
given. Chloride of lime, half an ounce, given every half 
hour with flour and water, is still better. Its use is con- 
tinued until an improvement is visible. An embrocation 
of warm vinegar is also recommended. If carbuncles are 
present, they are opened, cleaned out by directing a stream 
of water or a solution of zinc vitriol into them, and are 
then covered with butter of antimony by means of a small 
brush. The greatest care is necessary, and it is better to 
have the operation performed by a veterinary surgeon. If 
costiveness is present, a solution of two ounces of saltpetre 



140 DISEASES or CATTLE. 

and twelve ounces of glauber salts is poured down the 
animal's throat, and clysters of salt, soap and warm water ad- 
ministered. A fontanel of thirty grains of white sneezewort 
is also applied. If an improvement is seen in twenty-four to 
thirty hours, the following powder is given twice a day in 
bran food : Gentian two ounces, saltpetre one ounce, cala- 
mus-root one-half ounce, and golden sulphur of antimony 
eight drachms. 

The consumption of meat of animals belonging to herds 
where the disease has broken out is highly dangerous . 
to man. It is true that it has sometimes from ignorance 
or brutal disregard of danger been eaten with impunity, 
but there are numerous examples where such meat, or 
even its broth, has produced the death of whole families 
or caused very dangerous symptoms. The milk of the sick 
cows also possesses highly injurious qualities. All persons 
who are engaged in treating or attending to the sick animals 
must be very careful not to come in contact with their 
blood or other humors. Those having sore or wounded 
hands should not be allowed to go near the patients. While 
applying clysters and fontanels or giving internal remedies, 
the hands should be protected by a coating of oil or by 
gloves. Immediately after the manipulations the skin of 
the operator must be washed with soapsuds or a solution of 
chloride of lime wherever it has been soiled. The disease 
is very easily imparted by contagion. Fatal results have 
been produced where a drop of blood of the animal spirted 
into the eye of the operator, or where a fly, after sucking 
the blood of a patient, alighted on the face of a person and 
pierced his skin. 

Remarh. — The spleen disease caused by contagion in the 
human being (and not by eating the meat of diseased cattle) 
is called the black pox. Shortly after contagion the part 
begins to itch and burn, and a blister is soon formed, which 



DISEASES OF CATTLE. 141 

contains a thin liquid. The spot then becomes in succession 
red, brown, and finally of a dark-violet color. It is very 
hard and forms a knot. A few days afterward a general 
swelling appears, and symptoms of disease begin to show 
themselves. The patient becomes sad, 'has the headache, 
nausea and fever. Chills alternate with burning heat, and 
the patient suffers great thirst. The tongue is dry and 
painful, the patient speaks incoherently, faints, and finally 
dies under the most excruciating sufferings. 

I myself observed two such cases — the first on the lands 
of Count Dolgrow in the Russian Steppes, in 1846, and the 
second in 1849, on the lands of Count Pourtales in Prussia, 
near Berlin. In both death ensued, although the most 
celebrated doctors (especially in the second case) made 
strenuous endeavors to master the disease. 

A sense of duty therefore leads me to draw the attention 
of the government to the prevention of this terrible disease, 
especially in this country, where veterinary surgery is yet 
in its infancy, and a veterinarian occupies but an humble 
position in the eyes of the masses. If therefore there is 
any suspicion of contagion, an experienced doctor should at 
once be summoned. 



PLEURO-PNEUMONIA, CATTLE EPIDEMIC OR 
RINDERPEST. 

This disease appears in two different forms, viz. : Acute, 
and slow or lingering. 

The first symptoms of pleuro-pneumonia appear in the 
following form : 

In the beginning of the disease the animals are in a state 
of languor and dreariness, keeping their fore legs wide 



142 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

apart, so that the shoulder-blades and elbows protrude out- 
ward from the breast, the head hanging downward; the 
eyes appear dull and in tears ; the hair bristly ; the respi- 
ration is short and uneasy, with a heavy movement of the 
flanks and nostrils: From time to time a dull, painful and 
oppressed cough is observable, especially in the morning, 
when the animal is drinking or leaving the stable. The 
appetite for food is in many cases still unabated, although 
there is a remarkable disappearance of rumination ; milk- 
ing cows produce less milk, and it is thin and coagulates 
very soon. 

During the progress of the disease the cough increases, 
becoming shorter, more dry and weak ; the appetite and 
rumination disappear, and the yield of milk very soon 
ceases entirely. The sick animal stands with head and 
throat erect, the respiration is difficult, with a visible move- 
ment of the ribs and flanks, and the nostrils burst wide 
open. A thick slime flows from the eyes and nose, the ani- 
mal drinks very little, and in short movements interrupted 
by coughs ; is falling away, diarrhoea appears, and during 
the last days the animal in most cases lies down, not to rise 
again, and dies. 

A great deal is said at the present time of this disease, 
which has made its appearance in almost every State in the 
Union, and the great losses caused from this horrible 
plague are enough to discourage all our large cattle- 
owners and dealers at such a dark hour of our country. 
It is therefore advisable to act in our own interest, and to 
look for a remedy against this horrible disease, which not 
only proves fatal to separate States, but sometimes to whole 
countries. The great importance of the subject, as well as 
the great danger threatened to ^cattle, generally causes 
the governments of these countries to pay particular atten- 
tion to the treatment and abatement of the disease. Opin- 



DISEASES OF CATTLE. 143 

ions in regard to the origin of this disease are divided, but 
it is certain that it is contagious, for tlie following reasons : 
Pleuro-pneumonia may arise from itself^ or may be trans- 
ferred by contagion to healthy animals. The latter is often 
the case. The spontaneous formation of pleuro-pneumonia 
emanates from very different causes^— 

1. From the unfavorable influence of the atmosphere, 
especially during the spring, mostly in changeable, cold 
and damp weather, when the p^nimals take cold. 

2. By permanent feeding with artificial food, 

3. By spoiled food, such as sour, mouldy, musty hay, 
rotten roots or bulbs. 

4. By drinking unclean water. 

5. By keeping them without exercise or motion, especially 
in overcrowded stables. 

6. By careless attendance to the animal, w^ant of clean- 
ing the stables, etc. 

7. By importation of untanned hides, etc. 

8. By cattle imported from other countries, particularly 
in times of war, etc. 

9. From low-situated pastures with marshy bottoms. 

At the dissection of the animals we find in the carcass 
the most remarkable changes in the cavity of the breast. 
On cutting the breast, in most cases a large quantity of 
yellow water bursts forth, in w'hich more or less yellow 
flakes or lardaceous articles are swimming. The lungs are 
covered ^^■iih the same thick and lardaceous films, and ad- 
here on one or both sides to the ribs, but always more to 
the right than to the left side. The lungs are partially 
or entirely callous, greatly distended and heavy, so that 
they weigh twenty to forty pounds and even more, w hereas 
a sound lung only weighs from four to five pounds. On 
cutting the hardened part of the lungs it looks like marble, 
the dark, red-colored mass of the lung being interwoven by 



144 DISEASES OE CATTLE* 

yellow lardaceous veins diverging in every direction. The 
same thick films cover the surface of the lungs. This dis- 
ease may sometimes linger from two to three months in the 
body before these symptoms appear. 

The cure of this disease has to be undertaken in time, 
and with great care to prevent the largest part of the herd 
from perishing. I am prepared to save ninety out of 
a hundred in all cases. Pleuro-pneumonia is doubtless a 
contagious inflammation of the lungs, the breast and pneu- 
monic membrane, with exudation of coagulable lymph into 
the textures and brouchials. 

Symptoms of tJie Acute '^ Lungenseuche'^ — Cattle Epidemic. 

This disease appears rather suddenly. The affected animal 
heretofore lively, grows remarkably weak and sullen ; the 
walk is heavy and staggering, the hair bristly and without 
gloss ; the ears hanging dowuAvard, and the head also. The 
muscles of the throat often show a convulsive, trembling 
movement, the hair at the same time rising in different 
places. This cutaneous convulsion sometimes develops 
into a general shudder and fatal convulsions. The ears 
and horns change from warm to cold, the inside of the 
mouth being always very hot. The e3''es are reddened, in 
tears ; slime flows from the mouth and nose ; the resjoiration 
becomes diflacult, and from time to time a short, weak 
cough can be observed. The fever now appears and ru- 
mination ceases. In the beginning there is a violent thirst 
and no appetite for food. The excrements of the animal 
are hard and gangrenous, and during the second day diar- 
rhoea intervenes, the matter in the beginning consisting of 
a bad-smelling, dark or black-brown fluid, or a white, 
bilious slime. After a longer duration of the diarrhoea, 
the rectum and vagina stand open, the milk ceases, and the 
udder shrinks together, the animal often gnashing its teeth. 



DISEASES OF CATTLE. 145 

During the progress of the disease the animal is unable 
to stand, and at last even unable to rise, death generally- 
taking place on the third or seventh day after the attack. 
The owner should resort to the proper remedies, even if the 
animal seems to be healthy, for if this disease once makes 
its appearance in a certain neighborhood, it generally 
spreads among all the cattle. 

Dissection. — On opening the carcass, the tripe is hard and 
grated, containing in its interior and between its leaves a 
quantity of very dry food, which can easily be reduced to 
powder. The epidermis of these leaves can easily be peeled 
off, is black and dry, and appears as if burnt ; the third 
stomach of ruminants and the intestines are inflamed and 
often gangrenous ; the milk is parched up ; the liver tawny 
and friable; the gall-bladder very large, containing a 
large amount of thin gall ; the lungs are less inflamed than 
in lingering diseases, and the other parts of the body seem 
to be healthy, although the meat appears a little soft and 
discolored. 

This disastrous disease has at different times destroyed 
the cattle of whole districts and countries, and thereby 
ruined the prosperity of their inhabitants. The country 
where this disease originated is Southern Eussia, especially 
Bessarabia, Podolia, Keiv, the Ukraine and the dominions 
of the Cossacks of the Don. In 1717, for instance, 70,000 
cattle died in the territory of Piedmont, 300,000 in Hol- 
land, and 26,000 in the Ecclesiastical States. In Denmark, 
280,000 cattle were destroyed from 1745 to 1749, and in 
1776 Holland again lost about 300,000 cattle. 

The disease has been known in Germany since 1830 
under the name of " Lungenfoeule" (rottenness of the lungs), 
pulmonary consumption or pursiness. The first appearance 
was in Bohemia during 1831, 1841 and 1842 ; in Bavaria 
and Palatinate during 1844 ; in the southern part of Rus- 
13 G 



146 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

sia, especially in Bessarabia and Podolia, during 1846; 
in several provinces of Prussia during 1847 ; in Holland, 
Belgium, Eastern Friesland and Oldenburg in 1850 and 
1851 ; also in Saxony, Hanover, Brunswick (especially in the 
Saxony provinces of Magdeburg and Merseburg), in 1866 : 
England, Scotland and Ireland lost over 200,000 ; here it 
was known under the name of " Lungenseuche" (cattle 
plague or pulmonic plague). It was declared to be a con- 
tagious disease only with horned cattle, young and old, fat 
and lean, and not dangerous to men ; even the meat was 
held to be eatable during the beginning of the disease. 



THE END. 



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